Theories of International Relations

1. IR Theory Grapples with Enduring Questions of Global Politics

Understanding the variety of contexts and perspectives in which knowledge is formed remains a vital task of IR theory.

Evolving Discipline. International Relations (IR) as a discipline has evolved alongside theorizing about political phenomena between, beyond, and across states. The study of IR today goes well beyond the exclusive relations of states or nations, involving theorizing the relationship between international politics and economics, globalization processes, the role of non-state actors, and the increasing global governance of key transnational issues.

Historical Context. People have been thinking and writing about international relations for over two millennia, but it was not until the 20th century that IR was established as an academic discipline. Knowledge of the discipline’s history has not always been helped by the preoccupation with theory, and revisionist histories have challenged 1919 as an origin myth.

Theorizing Imperative. Theory has been central to the development of the study of international relations, yet the nature of theorizing in IR continues to evolve and reshape the discipline. Some scholars have suggested that we are at ‘the end of theory’ in terms of grand theorizing of international relations, with many types of theory coexisting without a single theoretical center or agreed set of questions or theoretical debates in which all engage.

2. Realism Prioritizes Power and Security in Anarchic Systems

States in anarchy cannot afford to be moral.

Core Tenets. Realism, a venerable tradition in IR, centers on groupism, egoism, and anarchy, leading to a focus on power and security. Key propositions include the anarchic international system, states' inherent offensive capabilities, uncertainty about other states' intentions, and the primary motive of survival.

Varieties of Realism. Classical realism balances anarchy and egoism, while structural realism emphasizes the compelling nature of anarchy. Neo-classical realism incorporates domestic politics and foreign policy decision-making. Offensive realism posits states maximize power, while defensive realism focuses on retaining power.

Fear and Uncertainty. Realism's relevance hinges on the prevalence of fear and uncertainty in the international system. When these factors are high, realism offers valuable insights. However, its applicability diminishes in more stable, rule-governed environments.

3. Liberalism Champions Individual Freedom and Global Cooperation

It is also the conviction that commercial barriers between individuals, erected by states, inhibit the development of a single human political community.

Key Contributions. Liberalism emphasizes the liberal-democratic peace, individual freedom through human rights, and economic globalization via free trade. It views war as an unnatural stain that can be eliminated through democracy and commerce.

Post-Cold War Revival. The demise of Soviet Communism in the 1990s enhanced the influence of liberal theories of international relations within the academy, a theoretical tradition widely thought to have been discredited by perspectives such as realism, which emphasize the recurrent features of international relations.

Challenges and Critiques. Despite its influence, liberalism faces challenges from events like the rise of Islamist terrorism, democratic reversals, and resistance to the spread of democracy. Critics also question the fairness of free trade and the potential for economic globalization to exacerbate inequalities.

4. Postcolonialism Reveals Colonialism's Enduring Impact on IR

‘The Third World Was Not a Place, It Was a Project’

Central Premise. Postcolonialism examines the history and legacies of colonialism, race, and racial hierarchies, and their influence on global politics. It challenges IR's Eurocentric focus and seeks to understand the world from the perspectives of those impacted by colonialism.

Historical Context. The discipline has focused almost exclusively on the Western world, without a serious consideration of political processes in Latin America, Africa, Asia or much of the Balkans. Such a focus is all the more ironic and puzzling given disciplinary claims to uncovering the universal dynamics of international politics.

Key Concepts. Postcolonialism highlights concepts like colonialism, race, orientalism, and epistemic justice. It explores how colonial power and violence continue to shape contemporary structures, processes, and institutions.

5. The English School Seeks Order and Justice in International Society

The foundational claim of the English School is that sovereign states form a society, but an anarchical one since they do not submit to a higher monopoly of power that can force them to comply with global rules.

Core Concepts. The English School emphasizes the existence of an "international society" of sovereign states, bound by shared rules and institutions. It seeks to balance order and justice in this anarchical society.

Pluralism vs. Solidarism. Distinctive debates within the English School revolve around the relative importance of order and justice. Pluralists prioritize state sovereignty and non-intervention, while solidarists advocate for greater global cooperation and humanitarian intervention.

Revolt Against the West. The English School analyzes the "revolt against the West," the challenges to European dominance by non-Western states and civilizations. It considers the potential for a post-Western international society.

6. Marxism Analyzes Class Struggles and Capitalist Globalization

Theory is always for someone and for for some purpose.

Historical Materialism. Marxism emphasizes the historical materialist conception of history, focusing on class struggles and the capitalist mode of production. It analyzes imperialism, dependency, and the uneven development of global capitalism.

Relevance to IR. Marxism offers insights into the relationship between states, geopolitics, and the global capitalist economy. It critiques the power structures and inequalities inherent in the international system.

Contemporary Applications. Neo-Gramscian approaches and the analysis of uneven and combined development provide contemporary historical materialist perspectives on international relations. These approaches examine the rise of China and other global power shifts.

7. Critical Theory Aims to Emancipate and Challenge Domination

Theory is always for someone and for some purpose.

Emancipatory Goal. Critical theory seeks to understand and transform global politics by addressing the root causes of problems that transcend borders. It challenges the ideological and normative interests embedded in IR theories.

Politics of Knowledge. Critical theory emphasizes the politics of knowledge, exposing the power relations that shape knowledge claims. It rejects the notion of value-free inquiry and seeks to reveal hidden interests and biases.

Rethinking Community. Critical theory explores the possibilities for rethinking political community beyond the sovereign state. It examines the normative dimension of ethical particularism and social exclusion.

8. Feminism(s) Expose Gender Bias and Promote Equality

[Theories] construct knowledge from marginalized and previously not heard, unfamiliar voices and issues and use this knowledge to challenges the core assumptions of the IR discipline.

Gender as a Category. Feminism uses gender as a theoretical category to interrogate foundational concepts and assumptions of IR theories (power, the state, security). It explores the empirical, analytical, and normative contributions of feminism to IR.

Waves of Feminism. Feminist IR has evolved through several waves, each addressing different aspects of gender and power. Empirical feminism makes women and gender structures visible, analytical feminism reveals gender bias in IR concepts, and normative feminism promotes diverse feminist epistemologies.

Contemporary Issues. Feminist perspectives help us understand and improve international relations by exploring the empirical, analytical and normative contributions of feminism to IR. The chapter considers the development of feminist International Relations and recent advances in the application of feminism to state foreign policies and to international peace and security through the UN Women, Peace and Security agenda.

9. Post-Structuralism Deconstructs Power and Knowledge

The activity of theory is, literally, about seeing.

Power and Knowledge. Post-structuralism emphasizes the relationship between power and knowledge, arguing that knowledge production is intertwined with political formations. It uses deconstructive strategies and genealogical methods to illuminate this relationship.

Textual Strategies. Post-structuralism employs textual strategies such as deconstruction and double reading to unsettle dominant interpretations. It challenges the stability of concepts and conceptual oppositions.

Problematizing Sovereignty. Post-structuralism problematizes the paradigm of sovereignty, rethinking the political beyond the confines of the sovereign state. It explores themes of violence, boundaries, identity, and statecraft.

10. Constructivism Highlights the Role of Norms and Identity

[Theories] are a necessary means of bringing order to the subject matter of International Relations.

Core Propositions. Constructivism emphasizes the importance of normative as well as material structures, the role of identity and ideas in shaping political action, and the mutually constitutive relationship between agents and structures.

Rationalism vs. Critical Theory. Constructivism bridges the gap between rationalist and critical theories. It challenges the rationalism of neo-realism and neo-liberalism while incorporating insights from critical theory.

Forms of Constructivism. Systemic, unit-level, and holistic constructivism offer different perspectives on the relationship between agents and structures. Constructivism’s Discontents and Limitations.

11. Institutionalism Explores the Impact of Institutions on IR

Theories are general statements that describe and explain causes or effects of classes of phenomena.

Core Assumption. Institutionalism starts from a core assumption that institutions matter for the functioning of international relations. It extends beyond liberalism to focus on debates from functionalism to multi-level governance, and informal institutions, such as norms and networks in global governance.

Varieties of Institutionalism. Rational-choice, sociological, historical, discursive, and feminist institutionalism offer different perspectives on the role and impact of institutions. Each approach emphasizes different aspects of institutional design, change, and influence.

Applications and Critiques. Institutionalism is used to analyze a wide range of issues in international politics, including European integration, global governance, and international cooperation. However, it faces critiques regarding its scope, methodology, and potential biases.

12. Green Theory Addresses Environmental Challenges to World Order

[Theories are ways of] thinking about power, justice, society, and so on.

Environmental Concerns. Green theory addresses the environmental challenges facing the planet, including climate change, biodiversity loss, and resource depletion. It draws on reformist as well as more radical or transformative approaches to global politics.

Key Concepts. Eco-centric ethics, limits to growth, the commons, and the Anthropocene underpin green theories. These concepts challenge traditional notions of world order and promote alternative approaches to global politics.

Green Global Politics. Green theory explores how global politics is being transformed to respond to the ecological crisis. It considers the role of institutions, social movements, and ethical considerations in shaping a sustainable future.

13. International Political Theory Scrutinizes Ethical Foundations

Few books can boast of having an enduring and long-lasting presence in their field but without a doubt, Theories of International Relations most certainly can.

Normative Basis. International political theory addresses the ethical and normative basis of arguments in IR. It scrutinizes the moral and political issues that arise in international politics, such as justice in war, global distributive justice, and global order.

Historical Context. International political theory examines the history of international thought, considering the evolution of ideas and their relationship to historical events. It explores tensions between international and global conceptions of justice.

Ethical Scrutiny. This theory is unlike others in the volume because it aims to address many of the questions other theories raise by scrutinizing the ethical or normative basis of their arguments. Specifically, the chapter considers moral and political issues, such as, whether wars, unequal distributions of resources and power, and global institutions can be just or deliver justice, taking into account historical contexts.

Last updated: February 26, 2025