The Origins of Political Order

1. Politics is Essential for Human Survival and Flourishing

The cumulative effect of these economic crises has not necessarily been to undermine confidence in market-based economics and globalization as engines of economic growth.

Institutions are not optional. Effective political institutions are crucial for creating and maintaining order, security, and prosperity. The absence of strong governance leads to chaos, corruption, and the failure to deliver basic services. Even in developed nations, we often take for granted the complex systems that underpin our daily lives, from pothole repair to economic stability.

The illusion of statelessness. Fantasies of a world without government, whether from the left or the right, are unrealistic and dangerous. Such societies already exist in parts of the developing world, characterized by weak institutions, lack of public services, and widespread violence. The belief that markets or civil society can replace the functions of a strong state is a fallacy.

Democracy's challenges. The spread of democracy is not enough to guarantee good governance. Many countries struggle to build effective institutions, combat corruption, and deliver on the promises of democracy. Political decay occurs when systems fail to adapt to changing circumstances, highlighting the need for constant vigilance and reform.

2. Human Nature is Inherently Social and Political

Aristotle was more correct than these early modern liberal theorists when he said that human beings were political by nature.

Beyond the "Hobbesian Fallacy." Humans are not inherently individualistic, entering society solely for self-preservation. Primates, our evolutionary predecessors, exhibit complex social behaviors, suggesting sociability is deeply ingrained. Early humans lived in tightly bonded groups, cooperating for survival.

Biology underpins cooperation. Kin selection and reciprocal altruism are fundamental drivers of social behavior. Altruism towards relatives and the expectation of reciprocation are biologically grounded. Chimpanzee politics, with its hierarchies and coalition-building, mirrors human social dynamics.

Language and abstract thought. The development of language and abstract thought enabled complex social organization. Religion, with its shared beliefs and rituals, further strengthened group cohesion. Emotions like anger, shame, and pride reinforce social norms, making humans conformist and norm-following.

3. Tribalism: Kinship as the Foundation of Early Social Order

The passion of protesters and democracy advocates around the world, from South Africa to Korea to Romania to Ukraine, might be sufficient to bring about "regime change" from authoritarian to democratic government, but the latter will not succeed without a long, costly, laborious, and difficult process of institution building.

From bands to tribes. Early human societies were organized into small, egalitarian bands based on kinship. The development of agriculture led to increased population density and the emergence of tribal societies, characterized by segmentary lineages and a sense of common descent. These tribes were often exogamous and patrilocal, promoting contact and trade between groups.

The tyranny of cousins. Tribal societies, while offering a sense of belonging, also imposed constraints on individual freedom. Social life was dictated by kinship obligations, limiting personal autonomy and choice. Disputes were settled through retributive justice, and leadership was based on consensus rather than formal authority.

Agnation and descent. Lineages were often organized around agnation, tracing descent exclusively through the male line. This system shaped inheritance patterns, marriage customs, and social roles. While agnation was common, other forms of descent, such as matriliny, also existed in certain societies.

4. Religion: The Glue of Early Tribal Societies

Religion solves this collective action problem by presenting rewards and punishments that greatly reinforce the gains from cooperation in the here and now.

Beyond rational self-interest. While self-interest plays a role in social cooperation, it is often insufficient to motivate individuals to sacrifice for the group. Religion provides a powerful mechanism for reinforcing norms and promoting social cohesion. Belief in a supernatural order, with rewards and punishments, strengthens group solidarity and encourages cooperation.

Ancestor worship and social cohesion. Ancestor worship, common in many tribal societies, reinforces kinship ties and obligations. The belief that dead ancestors can influence the lives of the living creates a sense of continuity and responsibility to future generations. Rituals and traditions further solidify group identity and distinguish it from others.

Religion as a mental model. Religious beliefs can be seen as mental models of reality, attributing causality to invisible forces. These models generate theories about how to manipulate the world, leading to the development of rituals and practices. Rituals, in turn, help to delineate communities and reinforce social boundaries.

5. The State: A Monopoly on Violence and the Exit from Tribalism

Political institutions are necessary and cannot be taken for granted.

From tribe to state. The transition from tribal to state-level society involves the concentration of power in a centralized authority. The state holds a monopoly on the legitimate use of violence, replacing kinship-based systems of justice with formal legal institutions. Property rights shift from communal to individual ownership, and social rules are formalized as written laws.

The three components of political order. A successful modern liberal democracy combines the state, the rule of law, and accountable government. The state concentrates power, while the rule of law and accountable government limit its power. Achieving a stable balance between these three components is the miracle of modern politics.

The problem of political decay. Political systems can fail to adapt to changing circumstances, leading to political decay. Institutions become rigid and resistant to change, supported by entrenched stakeholders who oppose reform. This can result in a disjunction between existing institutions and present needs.

6. China's Precocious State Formation: War and Centralization

China alone created a modern state in the terms defined by Max Weber.

China's early state. China was the first civilization to develop a modern state, characterized by a centralized, uniform system of bureaucratic administration. This occurred in the third century B.C., long before similar developments in Europe. China's pioneering experience is often overlooked in Western accounts of political development.

War as a driver of state formation. Constant warfare among competing states led to the consolidation of power in a centralized government. The need to mobilize resources for war drove the development of a professional bureaucracy, uniform legal systems, and standardized weights and measures. This process was particularly evident in the state of Qin, which ultimately unified China.

Legalism and the suppression of kinship. The Legalist school of thought advocated for a strong, centralized state that would suppress kinship ties and promote impersonal administration. This involved breaking up traditional social structures and replacing them with a system that tied individuals directly to the state. While Legalism was ultimately discredited, its influence on Chinese statecraft was profound.

7. India's Detour: Religion and the Limits of State Power

India graduated from a tribal to a state-level society at about the same time as China.

A different path. Unlike China, India's political development was shaped by the rise of Brahmanic religion. This religion established a hierarchical social order based on varnas and jatis, which limited the power of any Indian polity. The Brahmins, as a priestly class, held a moral authority independent of secular rulers.

Varnas and jatis. The varna system divided society into four classes: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants), and Sudras (laborers). The jati system further subdivided these classes into hundreds of endogamous occupational groups. This social structure limited the power of the state to penetrate and control society.

The Indian detour. The rise of Brahmanic religion and the caste system created a unique social order that constrained the development of a strong, centralized state in India. This "detour" paved the way for modern Indian democracy, but also contributed to the country's historical political fragmentation.

8. The Muslim World: Military Slavery and State Consolidation

It took not just the advent of a new religion, Islam, but also a curious institution of slave-soldiers to enable certain polities in Egypt and Turkey to turn themselves into major political powers.

Islam and tribalism. The Middle East at the time of the Prophet Muhammad was tribally organized. The advent of Islam provided a new basis for social cohesion, but tribal loyalties remained strong. To overcome the limitations of tribalism, certain Muslim polities turned to the institution of military slavery.

The Mamluks and Janissaries. Slave-soldiers, such as the Mamluks in Egypt and the Janissaries in the Ottoman Empire, were recruited from non-Muslim populations and converted to Islam. They were trained as professional soldiers and administrators, owing loyalty only to their masters. This system allowed rulers to create powerful armies and bureaucracies that were not beholden to tribal factions.

The limits of military slavery. While military slavery proved effective in consolidating state power, it also had its limitations. The Mamluks and Janissaries often became powerful interest groups, challenging the authority of the rulers they were meant to serve. The system also relied on a continuous supply of foreign recruits, which became increasingly difficult to maintain over time.

9. Europe's Unique Path: Law, Accountability, and the Balance of Power

In Europe alone, state-level institutions did not have to be built on top of tribally organized ones.

The European exception. Europe's political development followed a unique path, characterized by the early emergence of individualism, the rule of law, and accountable government. This was due in part to the influence of Christianity, which undermined kinship ties and promoted a sense of universal moral obligation.

The Catholic Church and the rule of law. The Catholic Church played a crucial role in establishing the rule of law in Europe. The investiture conflict, in which the church asserted its independence from secular rulers, led to the development of canon law and a separate legal system. This created a check on the power of the state and paved the way for the development of constitutional government.

Accountable government and the balance of power. Accountable government arose in Europe as a result of a balance of power between the state and other social actors, such as the aristocracy, the gentry, and the bourgeoisie. These groups were able to impose limits on the power of the state and demand representation in decision-making. This balance of power was unique to Europe and did not exist in other parts of the world.

10. Political Development and Decay: A Cyclical Process

Human institutions are "sticky"; that is, they persist over time and are changed only with great difficulty.

Institutions are sticky. Human institutions tend to persist over time, even when they become dysfunctional. This is due to the emotional investment people have in their traditions and customs. The failure to adapt to changing circumstances leads to political decay.

Patrimonialism and corruption. The natural human propensity to favor family and friends constantly reasserts itself in the absence of strong countervailing incentives. Organized groups, most often the rich and powerful, entrench themselves over time and begin demanding privileges from the state.

Violence and institutional change. Violence has played a central role in the process of political development. Societies can get stuck in a dysfunctional institutional equilibrium, in which existing stakeholders can veto necessary institutional change. Sometimes violence or the threat of violence is necessary to break out of the equilibrium.

11. Modernization: A New Paradigm for Political Development

Political development in the modern world occurs under substantially different conditions from those in the period up until the late eighteenth century.

The Industrial Revolution and its consequences. The Industrial Revolution fundamentally altered the conditions for political development. The possibility of sustained economic growth created new incentives for institutional innovation and reform. It also led to the mobilization of new social groups, such as the working class and the bourgeoisie, who demanded political participation.

Globalization and institutional convergence. The integration of societies across borders has increased the level of competition among them, leading to a convergence of political forms. Developing countries can now borrow institutions and policies from successful models, accelerating the process of political development.

The challenge of balancing state power and accountability. The key to successful political development in the modern world is to strike a balance between a strong state and accountable government. A strong state is necessary to provide order, security, and public goods. Accountable government is necessary to prevent the state from becoming tyrannical and corrupt.

Last updated: March 8, 2025