World History 101

1. History is a Story of Humanity's Scars

History is mostly about the scars.

Wounds leave traces. History, as it's commonly recorded, tends to focus on political and military events because these leave behind tangible evidence. While kisses leave no traces, wounds leave scars, and these scars become the focal points of historical narratives. This doesn't diminish the importance of other aspects of human experience, but rather reflects the practical challenges of reconstructing the past.

Humanity's shared origins. Modern humans originated in Ethiopia around 200,000 years ago, later spreading across the globe. Despite regional mutations, all humans share a common ancestor and genes, debunking the concept of genetically distinct races. This shared origin underscores the interconnectedness of human history and the importance of understanding our collective past.

The dawn of cities. The development of agriculture led to settled communities and the rise of cities, which in turn facilitated the creation of permanent political structures and written records. These records form the basis of what we call history, allowing us to glimpse into the lives, beliefs, and actions of our ancestors. The earliest cities emerged in the Fertile Crescent, marking the beginning of human civilization.

2. Civilization Emerged from the Fertile Crescent

That which I recited to you at midnight, May the singer repeat it at noon!

Mesopotamia's cradle. Human history began with cities, not nations, and the Fertile Crescent, located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, provided the ideal conditions for agriculture and settlement. The Sumerians, known as the "black-headed people," established dozens of linked cities, creating the world's earliest known civilization. Their innovations in literature, art, architecture, and music laid the foundation for future societies.

Sumerian city-states. Life in early Sumer revolved around agriculture and the weather, with citizens acutely aware of their dependence on successful harvests. Agreements among cities were crucial for survival, addressing issues like floods and warfare. Alliances were necessary to deter conflict, as evidenced by the destruction of Hamoukar, a city besieged by unknown invaders.

From Sumer to Akkad. Sumerian city-states operated under a loose alliance, with lugals (kings) from different cities holding regional diplomatic powers. This arrangement lasted for approximately three thousand years until Sargon I of Akkad conquered Sumer, marking the end of Sumer as a collection of city-states and ushering in an era of empires. The Akkadian conquest signaled a shift towards peace through strength.

3. Ancient Egypt: A Legacy of Immortality and Order

Thou art born, O Horus, as one whose name is ‘Him at whom the earth quakes’ . . . No seed of a god, which belongs to him, goes to ruin; so thou who belongest to him will not go to ruin.

The Nile's gift. Like Sumer, Egypt sprouted from river settlements along the Nile, eventually coalescing into two kingdoms: Lower Egypt (symbolized by the hawk god Horus) and Upper Egypt (symbolized by the vulture goddess Nekhbet). Around 3000 B.C.E., King Menes united the two kingdoms, becoming the first pharaoh to rule over all of Egypt.

The pharaoh's role. The pharaohs were considered conduits between the gods and mortals, tasked with protecting Egypt from both human and divine forces. They were raised to believe in their divine role, and the opulent tombs and posthumous honors were seen as necessary trappings of their position. Rejecting these trappings would have been seen as offending the gods.

Tombs of the immortals. Ancient Egyptians intentionally mummified corpses, initially as a way to preserve their leaders' bodies as a sign of spiritual incorruptibility. Early pharaohs were buried with sacrificed servants, later replaced by shabti statues. Today, mummification allows scientists to study ancient Egyptians, and the tombs provide invaluable artifacts for understanding their art, technology, and culture.

4. Empires Rise and Fall: Lessons from the Hittites and Assyrians

Until now, no member of my family has obeyed my will.

The Hittite dominance. By 1300 B.C.E., the Hittites, Egyptians, and Assyrians dominated the Middle East. The Hittites, with their armored chariots, were initially the most powerful, but their agricultural system collapsed, leading to their downfall. Their story serves as a reminder that military might alone cannot guarantee long-term stability.

The Pharaoh's widow. The Hittites' power is exemplified by the story of Tutankhamen's widow, Ankhesenamun, who requested a Hittite prince as her husband after her husband's death. This request highlights the Hittites' influence and the Egyptians' vulnerability. The murder of the Hittite prince Zannanza by Egyptian officials further strained relations between the two nations.

The Assyrian contradiction. The Assyrians were both deeply barbaric and deeply civilized, ruthlessly dominating puppet kingdoms while simultaneously serving as an international center of learning and culture. Their brutality, exemplified by flaying rebellious nobles, contrasted sharply with their sophisticated plumbing systems, vast library, and patronage of the arts. This contradiction underscores the complex nature of empires and the coexistence of barbarity and civilization.

5. The Achaemenid Empire: A Vision of Religious Tolerance

Thus saith the Lord to his anointed, to Cyrus, whose right hand I have holden, to subdue nations before him; and I will loose the loins of kings, to open before him the two leaved gates; and the gates shall not be shut . . .

Cyrus the Great. Cyrus the Great of Persia, who lived from about 590 B.C.E. until about 530 B.C.E., is identified in the Hebrew Bible as a messiah, a saving instrument of God himself. When Cyrus conquered Babylon in 539 B.C.E., he allowed the Jewish priests to return home to Israel stronger in their faith, and armed with Scripture.

Zoroastrianism's influence. Cyrus's religious beliefs, rooted in Zoroastrianism, emphasized the constant struggle between good and evil. Zoroastrianism did not demand conversion and allowed conquered civilizations to practice their local faiths. This radical idea, by the standards of the sixth century B.C.E., created a diverse, stable empire in which differences of opinion were relatively commonplace and relatively welcome.

The United States of Ancient Persia. Ancient Persia could be best understood as an absolute divine right monarchy, in many other respects it better conforms to the values we associate with modern liberal democracies than most of its rivals. The Persian Empire prohibited slavery, allowed women to own property, granted considerable local autonomy to conquered states, prioritized education and trade, and permitted an unprecedented level of religious freedom.

6. Ancient Greece: From City-States to Alexander's Conquest

I declare That later on, Even in an age unlike our own, Someone will remember who we are.

The Athenian period. Athens is often considered the epitome of ancient Greece, with its iconic Parthenon, philosophers like Socrates and Plato, and renowned works of poetry and plays. Athens played a crucial role in preventing Greece from becoming part of the Persian Empire, defeating Persia at the Battle of Marathon in 490 B.C.E. While Athens innovated new ways of governing, it was not a utopia, as only wealthy male citizens over eighteen were eligible to vote, and slavery was widely practiced.

Sparta's influence. Sparta united the Peloponnese through military prowess and strategic alliances. The Peloponnesian League, led by Sparta, emphasized tradition and defended the Greek ancestral homeland from usurpers. The Olympics, held in the Peloponnese, played a crucial role in linking the Greek city-states together and keeping them on friendly terms.

Alexander's empire. Philip II of Macedon united the Greek city-states under imperial control, paving the way for his son, Alexander the Great, to conquer a vast empire stretching across three continents. Alexander's conquests spread Greek language, religion, and cultural values, a process known as Hellenization, and created connections between countries that still exist today.

7. The Roman Republic and Empire: From Power to Decline

Let arms yield to togas, and laurels to speeches.

The rise of the Republic. The Roman Republic, established in 509 B.C.E., expanded by defeating neighboring civilizations and became a dominant power by 100 B.C.E. The Republic gave the West much of its political vocabulary and served as a bridge between ancient civilizations and more contemporary political systems.

Carthage must be destroyed. Rome's rivalry with Carthage, a dominant military and trade power, led to the Punic Wars. The Second Punic War, led by Hannibal Barca, nearly brought Rome to its knees. Ultimately, Rome defeated and conquered Carthage, but the fear of Carthage and Hannibal lingered, shaping Roman policy for decades.

From Republic to Empire. Julius Caesar's rise to power marked the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire. After Caesar's assassination, the Second Triumvirate, led by Octavian, consolidated power and established the Roman Empire. The Pax Romana, a period of relative peace and prosperity, lasted for 206 years, but the empire eventually declined due to factors such as its size, inefficiency, poverty, cruelty, and the people's weariness.

8. The Rise of Christianity: A Rebel's Enduring Influence

To get rid of the report [that he had set the Roman fire himself], Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus . . .

The Messiah's burden. Jesus, a rebel figure who preached against wealth and violence, was crucified by the Roman Empire. His followers spread the belief that he had returned from the dead, challenging the effectiveness of his crucifixion. Christianity, founded in the wake of this execution, would eventually become the official religion of the Roman Empire.

Rome and Babylon. During the first century C.E., Judaea was a province of the Roman Empire, and the citizens of Judaea saw significant parallels to the Babylonian Empire. The Romans weren’t as consistently oppressive as the Babylonians, but there were some oppressive traits in common. For one thing, Roman civic religion—like Babylonian religion—treated foreign religions, such as Judaism (and, later, Christianity), with suspicion.

The power of belief. The early Christian church even suggest that early Christians intentionally sought out crucifixion as a way of uniting with Jesus. It is no small thing that Christianity, a religion that was founded in the wake of the Roman Empire’s execution of a revolutionary figure, would, within a matter of several centuries, itself become the official religion of the Roman Empire.

9. The Mongol Empire: Conquest and Connection

If the cairn were not built, the magpie wouldn’t have perched.

Genghis Khan's legacy. Genghis Khan's conquests resulted in the largest land empire in human history, claiming the lives of millions. His empire, stretching from the Caspian Sea to the Pacific Ocean, facilitated trade routes that still exist today. The Northern Yuan dynasty, located in what we now call Mongolia, remained a significant regional power until 1635.

Military innovations. Genghis Khan's army included both women and men, and he trained his daughters for military leadership. Alakhai Bekhi ruled over his Chinese territories, while Alaltun Bekhi administered Uyghur territories in modern-day Turkey. These women were not mere figureheads; they were active participants in the administration and defense of the empire.

The Mongol impact. The Mongol Empire, though short-lived, had a lasting impact on the world. It facilitated trade and cultural exchange between East and West, and its military tactics influenced warfare for centuries to come. The empire's collapse led to the rise of new regional powers and reshaped the political landscape of Asia and Europe.

10. The Black Death: A Turning Point in History

In what annals has it ever been read that houses were left vacant, cities deserted, the country neglected, the fields too small for the dead and a fearful and universal solitude over the whole earth? . . . Oh happy people of the future, who have not known these miseries . . .

The plague's devastation. Between 1347 and 1353, the Black Death, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, killed as many as one hundred million people across Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. The epidemic's symptoms included fever, swollen lymph nodes, convulsions, and death within days. The Black Death left a deeply rooted cultural fear of disease that still affects us to this day.

A primordial killer. The plague may be as old as humanity itself, with evidence of ancient Y. pestis bacteria found in a 5,000-year-old Russian human tooth. Scientists speculate that the plague may have played a role in prehistoric human migration and ancient history. The Justinian Plague in 541 killed tens of millions of people in a matter of years.

From Hopei to Constantinople. The Black Death originated in the Hopei province of northwestern China in 1331 and spread along trade routes to Europe. The disease reached Constantinople by 1347, and then spread to Egypt by the end of 1347, Jerusalem by 1348, Mecca by 1349. No region or demographic was spared.

11. The Age of Exploration: Europe's Colonial Project

Presently we discovered two or three villages, and the people all came down to the shore, calling out to us, and giving thanks to God. Some brought us water, and others victuals: others seeing that I was not disposed to land, plunged into the sea and swam out to us, and we perceived that they interrogated us if we had come from heaven.

Europe's thirst for conquest. Western Europe of the late fifteenth century, driven by religious fervor and a desire for new markets, embarked on a colonial project that would enslave, kill, displace, or dominate most of the rest of the world. By 1900, Europe claimed power over most of the Americas, over 90 percent of Africa, over half of Asia, and nearly all of Australia and Polynesia.

Columbus's "discovery." Christopher Columbus's voyage to the Americas in 1492 marked the beginning of European colonization. While he wasn't the first to believe the world was round, his belief that the world was smaller than it is led him to sail west in search of a backdoor to Asia. His discovery of Hispaniola changed everything, leading to the exploration and exploitation of the Americas.

The trans-Atlantic slave trade. To exploit the vast resources of the Americas, Europeans forcibly transported more than twelve million Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to serve as slave labor. Millions died in transit, and those who survived faced a life of bondage. The slave trade fueled the economies of European colonial powers and the newly independent United States.

12. World War II: A Cataclysm and a New World Order

It is us today. It will be you tomorrow.

The rise of fascism. World War II, the largest and bloodiest war in human history, was driven by the aggressive ambitions of fascist dictators in Germany, Italy, and Japan. Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, and Emperor Hirohito sought to expand their empires and impose their ideologies on the world. The war resulted in unprecedented slaughter and atrocities, including the Holocaust.

The Axis powers. The Axis Powers, led by Germany, Italy, and Japan, sought to dominate Europe, Asia, and the Pacific. Their actions, including the invasion of Poland, the attack on Pearl Harbor, and the Holocaust, led to a global conflict that claimed the lives of tens of millions. The Allies, led by Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union, ultimately defeated the Axis Powers.

The legacy of war. World War II ended with the use of nuclear weapons, demonstrating humanity's capacity for self-destruction. The Holocaust revealed the depths of human depravity. The war prompted the creation of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, aimed at preventing future conflicts and protecting human dignity.

Last updated: March 1, 2025