Tocqueville

1. Democracy's Rise is Inevitable, Not Inherently Good

The gradual development of equality is a providential fact.

Inevitable trend. Tocqueville views democracy not as a choice, but as an unstoppable force, a "providential fact" sweeping across the world. He doesn't argue for or against it, but rather seeks to understand its nature, strengths, and weaknesses. He sees it as a historical trend, not a moral imperative, and believes that its rise is inevitable, regardless of whether it is good or bad.

• He traces this trend back centuries, noting how the church opened its ranks to all, not just nobles.
• He sees America as the place where this trend has come to fruition, the "image of democracy itself."

Not inherently good. Tocqueville does not blindly praise democracy. He acknowledges its potential for both good and evil, and his analysis is a careful assessment of its strengths and weaknesses. He warns against the dangers of democratic excess, such as the tyranny of the majority and the enervation of the soul. He believes that democracy must be understood and managed, not simply embraced.

• He sees the need for a "new political science" to navigate this new world.
• He emphasizes the importance of understanding democracy's flaws to mitigate them.

Analysis over advocacy. Tocqueville's approach is analytical rather than prescriptive. He seeks to understand democracy as it exists, not as it should be. He observes its practices, its institutions, and its mores, and he draws conclusions based on his observations. He is not a cheerleader for democracy, but a careful and critical observer.

• He is more interested in how democracy works than in whether it is good.
• He is a social scientist, not a political activist.

2. Local Self-Government: The Seed of Liberty

The township is the only combination of elements that is so perfectly in nature that everywhere men are gathered, a township forms by itself.

Township as a school. Tocqueville sees the New England township as the fundamental unit of democratic self-government, a "primary school" of freedom. It is where citizens learn to participate in public affairs, to make decisions, and to take responsibility for their community. He believes that this local experience is essential for the success of democracy at the national level.

• He emphasizes the importance of local participation in shaping citizens.
• He sees the township as a natural and spontaneous form of government.

Decentralization is key. Tocqueville argues that centralized administration, while efficient, can stifle local initiative and weaken the spirit of self-government. He contrasts the decentralized system of the United States with the centralized system of France, arguing that the former is more conducive to liberty. He believes that local control is essential for fostering a sense of ownership and responsibility among citizens.

• He sees centralized administration as a threat to freedom.
• He praises the American system of federalism for preserving local autonomy.

Learning by doing. Tocqueville emphasizes the importance of practical experience in learning self-government. He believes that citizens learn best by participating in the affairs of their community, not by reading books or listening to lectures. He sees the township as a place where citizens learn to govern themselves through trial and error.

• He values practical experience over theoretical knowledge.
• He sees the jury system as another important school of self-government.

3. Associations: The Strength of Democratic Societies

In democratic countries the science of association is the mother science; the progress of all the others depends on the progress of that one.

Counteracting individualism. Tocqueville argues that democracy, with its emphasis on equality, can lead to individualism, a tendency for citizens to withdraw into their private lives and neglect public affairs. He sees associations as a crucial antidote to this tendency, bringing citizens together to pursue common goals. He believes that associations are essential for the health of a democratic society.

• He sees individualism as a threat to democracy.
• He emphasizes the importance of civic engagement.

Schools of democracy. Associations, both political and civil, serve as "great schools" where citizens learn the art of self-government. They learn to cooperate, to compromise, and to pursue their interests through collective action. He believes that these skills are essential for the success of democracy.

• He sees associations as a training ground for citizenship.
• He emphasizes the importance of learning to work with others.

Variety of associations. Tocqueville notes the wide variety of associations in America, from political parties to temperance societies. He sees this diversity as a sign of a healthy and vibrant civil society. He believes that the freedom to associate is essential for the protection of individual rights and the promotion of the common good.

• He values the diversity of associations in America.
• He sees associations as a check on government power.

4. Self-Interest Well Understood: The American Way

The doctrine of self-interest well understood is not new, but it is among the ideas that are most appropriate to the needs of men in our time.

Enlightened self-interest. Tocqueville observes that Americans often act out of self-interest, but that they do so in an enlightened way, recognizing that their own well-being is connected to the well-being of others. He calls this "self-interest well understood," a doctrine that encourages citizens to pursue their own goals while also contributing to the common good.

• He sees self-interest as a powerful motivator.
• He emphasizes the importance of understanding the long-term consequences of one's actions.

Beyond narrow self-interest. Tocqueville's concept of self-interest well understood goes beyond mere selfishness. It includes a recognition of the importance of social cooperation, civic engagement, and the rule of law. He believes that this enlightened self-interest is essential for the stability and prosperity of a democratic society.

• He sees self-interest as compatible with virtue.
• He emphasizes the importance of acting for the common good.

Practical morality. Tocqueville sees self-interest well understood as a practical morality, one that is well-suited to the needs of a democratic society. It is not based on abstract principles or religious dogma, but on a recognition of the mutual benefits of cooperation and civic engagement. He believes that this practical morality is essential for the success of democracy.

• He values practical morality over abstract principles.
• He sees self-interest well understood as a way to promote social harmony.

5. Majority Tyranny: Democracy's Dark Side

I know of no country where, in general, there is less independence of mind and true freedom of discussion than in America.

The power of the majority. Tocqueville warns against the dangers of majority tyranny, the tendency for the majority to impose its will on the minority, suppressing dissent and limiting individual freedom. He argues that the power of the majority can be just as oppressive as the power of a single tyrant. He sees this as a major threat to democracy.

• He emphasizes the importance of protecting minority rights.
• He sees the majority as a potential source of oppression.

Tyranny of opinion. Tocqueville notes that the tyranny of the majority is not always exercised through force or violence. It can also be exercised through the power of public opinion, which can stifle dissent and discourage independent thought. He believes that this intellectual conformity is a major threat to freedom.

• He sees intellectual conformity as a form of tyranny.
• He emphasizes the importance of independent thinking.

Examples of tyranny. Tocqueville cites examples of majority tyranny in America, such as the treatment of African Americans and Native Americans. He argues that these examples demonstrate the potential for democracy to be used to oppress and marginalize minority groups. He believes that these examples serve as a warning against the dangers of unchecked majority power.

• He sees racial prejudice as a form of majority tyranny.
• He emphasizes the importance of protecting the rights of all citizens.

6. The Soft Despotism of Equality

I see an innumerable crowd of similar and equal men who revolve on themselves without repose, procuring the small and vulgar pleasures with which they fill their souls.

Individualism and apathy. Tocqueville argues that democracy, with its emphasis on equality, can lead to individualism, a tendency for citizens to withdraw into their private lives and neglect public affairs. He believes that this apathy can create an opening for a new form of despotism, one that is mild and subtle, but no less oppressive.

• He sees individualism as a threat to democracy.
• He emphasizes the importance of civic engagement.

The tutelary state. Tocqueville warns against the rise of a "tutelary power," a centralized state that takes responsibility for all aspects of citizens' lives, providing for their needs and regulating their behavior. He believes that this form of government, while seemingly benevolent, can stifle individual initiative and undermine freedom.

• He sees the tutelary state as a form of soft despotism.
• He emphasizes the importance of individual responsibility.

Loss of greatness. Tocqueville argues that the soft despotism of equality can lead to a loss of human greatness, a decline in the pursuit of noble goals and the cultivation of virtue. He believes that democracy, if not carefully managed, can lead to a society of mediocrity, where citizens are content with small pleasures and lack the ambition to achieve great things.

• He sees mediocrity as a threat to democracy.
• He emphasizes the importance of striving for excellence.

7. The Aristocratic Roots of Liberty

Freedom is old, equality comparatively new.

Aristocratic virtues. Tocqueville acknowledges that many of the institutions and practices that support liberty in America have their roots in aristocracy. He points to the English tradition of local self-government, the jury system, and the concept of individual rights as examples of aristocratic legacies that have been adapted to a democratic context.

• He sees aristocracy as a source of valuable political traditions.
• He emphasizes the importance of learning from the past.

Rights from practice. Tocqueville argues that the concept of rights in America is not derived from abstract theory, but from the practical experience of English nobles who stood up to the king. He believes that this practical understanding of rights is more robust and enduring than any theoretical formulation.

• He sees rights as a product of historical experience.
• He emphasizes the importance of practical wisdom.

Pride and freedom. Tocqueville sees pride as an essential ingredient of freedom, a willingness to stand up for one's rights and to resist oppression. He argues that this sense of pride is often lacking in democratic societies, where citizens are more concerned with equality than with liberty. He believes that the cultivation of pride is essential for the preservation of freedom.

• He sees pride as a necessary component of freedom.
• He emphasizes the importance of self-respect.

8. Rational Administration: The Monarchy's Unintended Legacy

The most dangerous moment for a bad government is ordinarily when it begins to reform itself.

Centralization's origins. Tocqueville argues that the French monarchy, in its efforts to consolidate power, inadvertently laid the groundwork for the French Revolution. He shows how the monarchy gradually dismantled the feudal system, replacing it with a centralized administrative state. He believes that this process of centralization was a major cause of the Revolution.

• He sees the monarchy as a source of unintended consequences.
• He emphasizes the importance of understanding the long-term effects of government policies.

Meritocracy and bureaucracy. Tocqueville notes that the French monarchy, in its pursuit of efficiency, created a meritocratic bureaucracy, staffed by officials chosen for their skills and abilities. He sees this as a precursor to the modern administrative state, with its emphasis on expertise and technical competence.

• He sees meritocracy as a double-edged sword.
• He emphasizes the importance of balancing efficiency with other values.

Undermining local power. Tocqueville argues that the monarchy's policy of centralization undermined local power and initiative, creating a society of isolated individuals dependent on the state. He believes that this loss of local autonomy was a major factor in the outbreak of the Revolution.

• He sees local power as a check on government authority.
• He emphasizes the importance of decentralization.

9. The Perils of Abstract Theory in Politics

What is a quality in a writer is often a vice in a statesman.

Men of letters and politics. Tocqueville criticizes the "men of letters" of the Enlightenment for their abstract and impractical approach to politics. He argues that their lack of experience in the real world led them to embrace utopian schemes and to ignore the complexities of human nature. He sees their influence as a major cause of the French Revolution.

• He sees abstract theory as a danger to practical politics.
• He emphasizes the importance of experience and prudence.

The lure of simplicity. Tocqueville notes that the men of letters were drawn to simple and elegant solutions to complex problems. He argues that this tendency to oversimplify reality led them to ignore the unintended consequences of their ideas. He believes that this is a common mistake of intellectuals in politics.

• He sees the desire for simplicity as a source of error.
• He emphasizes the importance of complexity and nuance.

The limits of reason. Tocqueville argues that human reason is not sufficient to guide political action. He believes that politics requires a combination of reason, experience, and prudence. He warns against the dangers of relying solely on abstract theory, which he sees as a recipe for disaster.

• He sees reason as a limited tool for political action.
• He emphasizes the importance of practical wisdom.

10. The Importance of Pride and Greatness in Democracy

I would willingly trade several of our small virtues for this vice.

Pride as a virtue. Tocqueville challenges the traditional view of pride as a vice, arguing that it can be a source of strength and independence. He sees pride as an essential ingredient of freedom, a willingness to stand up for one's rights and to resist oppression. He believes that the cultivation of pride is essential for the preservation of democracy.

• He sees pride as a necessary component of freedom.
• He emphasizes the importance of self-respect.

Greatness in democracy. Tocqueville argues that democracy, despite its tendency toward mediocrity, is capable of producing great achievements. He sees the American experiment as an example of this potential, a society that has combined freedom and equality to create a powerful and prosperous nation. He believes that the pursuit of greatness is essential for the health of a democratic society.

• He sees greatness as a goal worth striving for.
• He emphasizes the importance of ambition and aspiration.

The soul's restlessness. Tocqueville recognizes that human beings are not simply driven by material desires, but also by a longing for something more, a desire for meaning and purpose. He believes that this restlessness of the soul is a source of both creativity and discontent, and that it must be channeled in a way that is conducive to freedom and greatness.

• He sees the soul as a source of both good and evil.
• He emphasizes the importance of finding meaning in life.

Last updated: January 14, 2025