The Oil Curse

1. Oil wealth paradoxically hinders democracy and gender equality

Since 1980, good geology has led to bad politics.

Democracy inhibited. Oil wealth tends to keep autocrats in power by enabling them to lower taxes, increase spending, and conceal government activities. Since 1980, oil-rich countries have been 50% more likely to be ruled by autocrats and more than twice as likely to experience civil wars compared to similar countries without oil.

Gender equality stifled. Petroleum wealth often reduces economic opportunities for women, particularly in countries with existing cultural barriers to female employment. This leads to:

• Lower female labor force participation
• Fewer women in government and leadership roles
• Higher fertility rates and faster population growth

Regional disparities. The effects are strongest in the Middle East and North Africa, where oil wealth exacerbates existing cultural and institutional barriers to democracy and gender equality.

2. The "resource curse" emerged in the 1980s due to industry changes

Before 1980 there was little evidence of a resource curse.

Industry transformation. The resource curse emerged in the 1980s due to several key changes in the global oil industry:

• Nationalization of oil industries in many countries
• Collapse of the Bretton Woods system of fixed exchange rates
• Rise of OPEC and increased market volatility

Historical context. Prior to these changes, oil-producing countries were not significantly different from non-oil producers in terms of:

• Democratic governance
• Economic growth rates
• Gender equality

Post-1980 divergence. After 1980, oil-rich countries began to diverge from their peers, experiencing:

• More durable autocratic regimes
• Increased vulnerability to civil conflicts
• Slower progress on women's rights and representation

3. Oil revenues are uniquely large, unstable, and easy to conceal

Petroleum revenues have four distinctive qualities: their scale, source, stability, and secrecy.

Massive scale. Oil revenues dwarf those from other industries, often constituting a large portion of government budgets. This enables:

• Lower taxes and higher spending
• Greater government control over the economy
• Reduced citizen oversight and accountability

Non-tax source. Unlike tax revenues, oil income doesn't create a fiscal social contract between citizens and government, reducing pressure for accountability.

High instability. Oil revenues are highly volatile due to:

• Fluctuating global oil prices
• Production changes as fields deplete or new reserves are found
• Complex contracts that can amplify price swings

Secretive nature. Oil revenues are uniquely easy for governments to hide, facilitating:

• Corruption and mismanagement
• Reduced public scrutiny
• Maintenance of autocratic power

4. Petroleum wealth reduces female labor force participation

Without large numbers of women participating in the economic and political life of a country, traditional patriarchal institutions will go unchallenged.

Economic disincentives. Oil wealth can reduce female labor force participation through several mechanisms:

• Dutch Disease effects crowd out manufacturing jobs often held by women
• Government transfers reduce the need for dual-income households
• Oil sector jobs are predominantly male-dominated

Regional variations. The impact on women's employment is strongest in regions where:

• Cultural barriers to female employment already exist
• The service sector is not a significant employer of women
• There are legal restrictions on women's work and mobility

Long-term consequences. Reduced female labor force participation leads to:

• Lower political representation for women
• Higher fertility rates and faster population growth
• Reinforcement of traditional gender roles and patriarchal institutions

5. Oil increases civil war risk in low and middle-income countries

Since the early 1990s, oil-producing countries have been about 50 percent more likely than other countries to have civil wars.

Conflict mechanisms. Oil can increase civil war risk through several pathways:

• Separatist movements in oil-producing regions
• Grievances over revenue distribution
• Funding for rebel groups through oil theft or extortion
• Weakening of state institutions

Income-dependent risk. The conflict risk is highest in low and middle-income countries, where:

• The opportunity cost of joining rebel groups is lower
• Institutions are often weaker and less able to manage conflicts
• Oil revenues are more likely to be mismanaged or stolen

Types of conflicts. Oil-related conflicts include:

• Separatist wars in oil-producing regions (e.g., Nigeria's Niger Delta)
• Conflicts over control of the central government (e.g., Libya)
• Low-intensity violence and extortion (e.g., pipeline attacks in Colombia)

6. Oil states have volatile but not slower economic growth

If countries with the most urgent needs are also the least likely to benefit from their own geologic endowment.

Normal growth, high volatility. Contrary to some earlier studies, oil-rich countries have not experienced slower long-term economic growth. However, their growth has been more volatile due to:

• Fluctuations in global oil prices
• Difficulty in managing revenue windfalls and shortfalls
• Vulnerability to Dutch Disease effects

Missed opportunities. While not growing more slowly on average, oil-rich countries have often failed to fully capitalize on their resource wealth due to:

• Inadequate investment in human capital and infrastructure
• Failure to diversify economies
• Corruption and mismanagement of oil revenues

Policy challenges. Managing oil wealth for sustainable growth requires:

• Countercyclical fiscal policies to smooth out revenue volatility
• Investment in non-oil sectors to promote economic diversification
• Transparency and accountability in revenue management

7. Transparency and revenue management are key to avoiding the curse

Transparency alone cannot fix all of these problems, but it should help.

Transparency benefits. Increased transparency in oil revenue management can:

• Reduce corruption and mismanagement
• Increase public trust and government accountability
• Facilitate better economic planning and policy-making

Revenue management strategies. Effective oil revenue management often involves:

• Sovereign wealth funds to save for future generations
• Stabilization funds to smooth out price volatility
• Direct distribution of some oil revenues to citizens
• Investment in human capital and infrastructure

International initiatives. Several global initiatives promote transparency and better governance in resource-rich countries:

• Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI)
• Publish What You Pay campaign
• Natural Resource Charter

8. The Middle East's democracy deficit stems largely from oil wealth

A large fraction of the Middle East's democracy and gender rights deficits can be explained by oil wealth.

Oil vs. Islam. While Islamic culture plays a role, oil wealth is a more significant factor in explaining the Middle East's lack of democracy and gender equality:

• Within the Middle East, countries with less oil tend to be more democratic and have better women's rights
• Muslim-majority countries without oil (e.g., Indonesia, Turkey) have made more progress on democracy and gender equality

Reinforcing mechanisms. Oil wealth in the Middle East has:

• Enabled autocrats to maintain power through low taxes and high spending
• Reduced economic opportunities for women, reinforcing traditional gender roles
• Weakened civil society and independent private sectors

Reform challenges. The concentration of oil wealth in the Middle East creates significant obstacles to democratic reform and gender equality, requiring targeted strategies to overcome these barriers.

9. Targeted policies can help countries escape the resource curse

Geology is not destiny.

Policy options. Countries can mitigate the negative effects of oil wealth through various strategies:

• Slowing the pace of extraction to better manage revenues
• Using barter contracts to directly exchange oil for public goods
• Distributing oil revenues directly to citizens
• Partial privatization of national oil companies
• Adopting oil-denominated loans to stabilize government finances

Institutional reforms. Improving governance and institutions is crucial:

• Increasing transparency in oil revenue collection and spending
• Strengthening checks and balances on executive power
• Investing in diversification of the economy
• Promoting women's participation in the workforce and politics

International role. Oil-importing countries and the international community can help by:

• Promoting transparency in international oil companies
• Supporting global initiatives for resource governance
• Providing technical assistance for revenue management
• Encouraging diversification in oil-dependent economies

Last updated: March 11, 2025