The Great Wall

1. The Great Wall: More Than Just One Wall

Driving her wonderful chronicle of the wall is her will to dispel visitors’ impressions, shared alike by Richard Nixon and backpacking tourists, that the Great Wall is a continuous construction of great antiquity.

Dispelling the myth. The common perception of the Great Wall as a single, ancient structure is a misconception. Instead, it is a series of walls built by different dynasties over centuries. The term "Great Wall" (Changcheng) is a relatively recent designation, and many earlier walls were referred to by various other names.

A fragmented history. The physical remains of these walls vary greatly, from well-preserved sections to barely discernible earthen mounds. The most iconic stone and brick sections date back only to the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). This reality contrasts sharply with the popular image of a unified, ancient barrier.

Multiple walls, multiple purposes. Understanding the Great Wall requires recognizing its fragmented nature and the diverse motivations behind its construction. Each dynasty had its own strategic priorities and building techniques, resulting in a complex and evolving system of fortifications.

2. Walls Reflect China's Shifting Relationship with the World

Lovell seeks to use the Great Wall as an interpretive device to understand the long sweep of Chinese history, lifting it out of its specific geographical context as an instrument of northern-frontier control and making it stand as a metaphor for the history and destiny of the country as a whole.

A barometer of openness. The construction and abandonment of walls reflect China's fluctuating relationship with the outside world. Periods of strong, centralized rule and expansion often saw wall-building, while times of internal division or openness to foreign influence led to their neglect.

Beyond physical barriers. The Great Wall also serves as a metaphor for the "mental wall" that China has sometimes erected around itself, characterized by isolationism, cultural superiority, and resistance to foreign ideas. This invisible wall has had a profound impact on China's development.

Oscillation between extremes. Throughout its history, China has oscillated between periods of engagement with the world and periods of self-imposed isolation. The Great Wall, both as a physical structure and a symbolic concept, embodies this ongoing tension.

3. Early Walls: Expansionist Tools, Not Just Defensive Barriers

There is, thus, no single Great Wall, but instead many lesser walls.

Challenging the defensive narrative. The traditional view of the Great Wall as a purely defensive structure protecting China from barbarian invasions is not entirely accurate. Many early walls were built far beyond Chinese settlements, suggesting an expansionist motive.

Policing and control. These walls served to control trade routes, police nomadic populations, and facilitate the expansion of Chinese influence into the steppe. They were instruments of power projection as much as defensive barriers.

Aggressive imperialism. The construction of these walls often involved displacing or subjugating non-Chinese peoples, highlighting a less palatable aspect of Chinese frontier policy. This challenges the romanticized image of the Great Wall as a symbol of peaceful self-defense.

4. The Qin's Long Wall: A Symbol of Tyranny and Sacrifice

It is carried on in a curvilinear direction often over the steepest highest and craggiest mountains as I observed in several places, and measures upwards of one thousand five hundred miles in length.

The First Emperor's ambition. Qin Shihuang, the First Emperor, unified China and initiated the construction of the first continuous Long Wall across the north. This ambitious project was intended to protect the empire from nomadic incursions.

Human cost and resentment. The construction of the Long Wall involved immense human suffering, with hundreds of thousands of laborers conscripted and many dying from harsh conditions. This led to widespread resentment and contributed to the Qin dynasty's downfall.

A legacy of oppression. The Qin's Long Wall became a symbol of tyranny and the oppressive use of forced labor. Legends like that of Mengjiang, whose husband died building the wall, reinforced this negative perception.

5. Han Walls: A Cycle of Expansion, Appeasement, and Collapse

At the remote period of its building,’ gushed Macartney in conclusion, ‘China must have been not only a very powerful empire, but a very wise and virtuous nation, or at least to have had such foresight and such regard for posterity as to establish at once what was then thought a perpetual security for them against future invasion...’

Echoes of the Qin. The Han dynasty, while denouncing the Qin's tyranny, also engaged in extensive wall-building. Emperor Wu expanded the empire and constructed new walls to protect against the Xiongnu.

The Peace and Friendship policy. The Han also employed a strategy of appeasement, offering gifts and princesses to the Xiongnu in exchange for peace. This policy, while effective in the short term, was seen as humiliating and unsustainable.

A familiar pattern. The Han dynasty's experience with wall-building followed a cyclical pattern: expansion, overextension, and eventual collapse. This pattern would be repeated throughout Chinese history.

6. The Northern Wei: Sinicization and the Perils of Decadence

Walls, walls, and yet again walls, form the framework of every Chinese city.

Barbarians embrace China. The Northern Wei, a non-Chinese dynasty that ruled northern China, initially maintained its nomadic traditions. However, it gradually adopted Chinese culture and institutions.

The lure of civilization. This process of sinicization led to the construction of walls and the adoption of a more sedentary lifestyle. While this brought stability and prosperity, it also weakened the dynasty's military strength.

A cautionary tale. The Northern Wei's experience serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of cultural assimilation. By abandoning their nomadic roots, they became vulnerable to new waves of barbarian invaders.

7. The Tang Dynasty: A Wall-less Empire Built on Strength and Cosmopolitanism

You’re not a real man if you’ve not got to the Great Wall.

Breaking the mold. The Tang dynasty stands out for its relative lack of wall-building. Instead, it relied on military strength, diplomatic skill, and a cosmopolitan outlook to maintain its vast empire.

A golden age of openness. The Tang dynasty embraced foreign cultures, religions, and trade. This openness contributed to its economic prosperity and cultural vibrancy.

The limits of power. However, even the Tang dynasty eventually succumbed to internal strife and external pressures. The An Lushan Rebellion marked a turning point, leading to a decline in central authority and a resurgence of regionalism.

8. The Ming Dynasty: The Great Wall as a Symbol of National Identity and Defense

The Great Wall possesses the character of the Chinese nation.

A new era of wall-building. The Ming dynasty, after overthrowing the Mongol Yuan, embarked on a massive program of wall construction. This effort resulted in the Great Wall as it is known today.

A symbol of Ming power. The Ming emperors saw the Great Wall as a symbol of their legitimacy and their determination to protect China from foreign threats. It became a powerful tool for shaping national identity.

The limits of defense. Despite its impressive scale, the Ming Great Wall ultimately failed to prevent the Manchu conquest of China. This failure highlights the limitations of static defenses in the face of determined and adaptable enemies.

9. The Great Wall in the Modern Era: From National Symbol to Tourist Attraction

This is a great wall and it had to be built by a great people.

Western fascination. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Western observers transformed the Great Wall into a symbol of China in the Western imagination. It became associated with Chinese civilization, power, and technological prowess.

Chinese embrace. Modern Chinese nationalists adopted this Western view of the Great Wall, using it as a source of national pride and a symbol of resilience. It became a rallying cry during times of crisis and foreign aggression.

A tourist icon. Today, the Great Wall is a major tourist attraction, drawing millions of visitors each year. However, its historical complexities and less glorious aspects are often overlooked in favor of a simplified, romanticized narrative.

10. The Enduring Legacy: Walls as Metaphors for China's Worldview

The strength of walls depends on the courage of those who guard them.

More than just bricks and mortar. The Great Wall, both as a physical structure and a symbolic concept, continues to shape China's worldview. It represents the ongoing tension between openness and enclosure, engagement and isolation.

A complex legacy. The Great Wall's history is filled with contradictions and ambiguities. It has been a symbol of strength and weakness, unity and division, progress and stagnation.

Understanding China. By examining the history of the Great Wall, we can gain a deeper understanding of China's complex relationship with the world and its enduring quest for national identity.

Last updated: March 1, 2025