Stoicism

1. Stoicism: More Than Just Emotional Repression

Stoicism does involve complex philosophical theories in ontology (theory of what exists), epistemology (theory of knowledge) and ethics, but these theories are situated within a very particular conception of what philosophy is.

Beyond the stereotype. Stoicism, often misunderstood as mere emotional suppression, is a comprehensive ancient philosophy. Originating around 300 BCE with Zeno of Citium in Athens, it gained popularity throughout the Roman world, influencing figures like Seneca and Marcus Aurelius. It offers a distinctive perspective on the world and the individual's place within it.

A holistic approach. Stoicism encompasses interconnected theories about existence, knowledge, and ethics. It's not just a set of beliefs but a practical guide for living a meaningful life. This system emphasizes reason, virtue, and acceptance of what we cannot control.

Enduring influence. Stoicism has resonated with thinkers across centuries, from Montaigne and Kant to Nietzsche and Foucault. Its principles continue to offer valuable insights into navigating life's challenges and cultivating inner resilience.

2. The Stoic Philosophical System: A Way of Life

Following Socrates, the Stoics present philosophy as primarily concerned with how one should live.

Philosophy as a practice. Stoicism is not merely an intellectual exercise but a practical art of living. It emphasizes the transformation of one's character and behavior in accordance with its principles. This focus on practical application distinguishes it from purely theoretical philosophical pursuits.

Transforming daily life. Stoic philosophy aims to shape one's actions and reactions in everyday situations. It encourages self-awareness, discipline, and a commitment to virtue in all aspects of life. This involves constant self-reflection and striving to align one's actions with Stoic ideals.

The physician of the soul. The Stoics viewed philosophy as a medicine for the soul, addressing emotional disturbances and faulty judgments. This therapeutic approach emphasizes self-care and the cultivation of inner strength. The goal is to achieve a state of tranquility and resilience in the face of adversity.

3. The Sage: An Ideal Worth Striving For

The sage is described in a variety of sources as someone who is never impeded, who is infallible, who is more powerful than everyone else, richer, stronger, freer, happier and the only person truly deserving the title “king”.

The ultimate goal. The Stoic sage represents the ideal of human perfection. This figure embodies complete rationality, emotional stability, and indifference to external circumstances. While perhaps unattainable, the sage serves as a guiding star for Stoic practitioners.

Qualities of the sage:

• Perfectly rational and free from emotional disturbances
• Indifferent to external circumstances, including wealth, health, and reputation
• Possessing complete self-control and inner peace

A practical guide. The sage is not meant to be a distant, abstract concept but a concrete model for self-improvement. By striving to emulate the sage's virtues, individuals can make progress toward a more fulfilling and meaningful life. The sage is a reminder of the potential for human excellence.

4. Logic: The Foundation of Stoic Reasoning

If you could analyse syllogisms like Chrysippus, what is to prevent you from being wretched, sorrowful, envious and, in a word, being distracted and miserable? Not a single thing.

More than just formal arguments. Stoic logic, or logikē, encompasses a broad range of intellectual disciplines. It includes dialectic (formal reasoning), rhetoric, epistemology (the study of knowledge), and philosophy of language. This comprehensive approach reflects the Stoic emphasis on reason as the foundation for a virtuous life.

Stoic vs. Aristotelian logic:

• Stoic logic focuses on propositions (assertibles) and their relationships, using connectives like "if," "and," "or," and "not."
• Aristotelian logic focuses on terms and categories, using quantifiers like "all" and "some."

The five indemonstrables. Stoic logic is built upon five basic argument forms, known as "indemonstrables." These are considered self-evident and serve as the foundation for all other valid arguments. These include Modus Ponens, Modus Tollens, and variations of disjunctive syllogisms.

5. Language: The Stoic View of Meaning and Reality

The Stoics said that three things are linked together, the thing signified and the thing signifying and the thing existing; and of these the thing signifying is the utterance (“Dion” for instance); and the thing signified is the actual thing indicated thereby and which we apprehend as subsisting in dependence on our intellect, whereas foreigners although hearing the utterance do not understand it; and the thing existing is the external object, such as Dion himself.

The Stoic triad. The Stoics recognized three elements in communication: the utterance (the physical sound), the existing object (the thing being referred to), and the sayable (the meaning or sense). This framework highlights the relationship between language, thought, and reality.

Sayables: Incorporeal meaning. The "sayable" (lekton) is a unique Stoic concept. It represents the meaning or sense expressed by an utterance. Unlike the utterance and the object, the sayable is incorporeal, meaning it doesn't exist in the same way as physical things.

The limits of materialism. The Stoic theory of sayables reveals the challenges of their materialism. While they insisted that only bodies exist, they also recognized the reality of meaning. This led to the somewhat paradoxical claim that sayables "subsist" but do not "exist."

6. Physics: Understanding the Material Cosmos

Th ey say that philosophical discourse has three parts, one of these being physical, another ethical and another logical.

Materialism as a foundation. Stoic physics is rooted in the belief that only bodies exist. This materialism shapes their understanding of the cosmos, the soul, and the nature of reality. It also influences their ethics, which emphasizes living in accordance with the natural world.

Two principles: Active and passive. The Stoics posited two fundamental principles: the active (God, reason, pneuma) and the passive (matter). These principles are not separate entities but rather aspects of a unified cosmos. The active principle shapes and organizes matter, creating the order and harmony we observe in nature.

A living cosmos. The Stoics viewed the cosmos as a living, rational being. This perspective emphasizes the interconnectedness of all things and the importance of understanding our place within the larger cosmic order. It also leads to a deterministic view of the universe, where all events are governed by fate.

7. Living in Accordance with Nature: The Ethical Goal

Th e task of philosophy is to understand Nature, so that one can live in accordance with Nature and so achieve happiness or eudaimonia.

The guiding principle. "Living in accordance with Nature" is the central ethical imperative of Stoicism. This means aligning one's actions and desires with the natural order of the cosmos. It involves understanding the laws of nature and accepting what we cannot control.

Three aspects of Nature:

• Our own nature as rational beings
• Human nature as social and political animals
• The nature of the cosmos as a whole

Cosmopolitanism. Living in accordance with nature leads to a sense of cosmopolitanism, recognizing all human beings as fellow citizens of the cosmos. This perspective transcends the boundaries of individual cities and states, fostering a sense of universal responsibility.

8. Emotions: Judgments, Not Feelings

Almost all human misery, he argues, is the product of people not understanding the nature and signifi cance of this division, of assuming that they have control of things that in fact they do not, of grounding their happiness on external things “not up to us” and so making it highly vulnerable to the vicissitudes of fortune.

Emotions as cognitive. The Stoics believed that emotions are not simply irrational feelings but rather judgments or beliefs about the world. These judgments often involve unwarranted ascriptions of value to external events. By changing our judgments, we can transform our emotional responses.

The path to apatheia. The Stoic ideal of apatheia refers to freedom from destructive emotions. This is not about suppressing feelings altogether but rather about cultivating a state of emotional tranquility based on reason and understanding. It is about not being controlled by your emotions.

Good emotions (eupatheiai). The Stoics recognized the existence of "good emotions," such as joy, caution, and wishing. These emotions are rational responses to genuine goods, such as virtue. They are not based on mistaken judgments or attachments to external things.

9. Appropriate Action: Living a Virtuous Life

It is not the person who eagerly listens to and makes notes of what is spoken by the philosophers who is ready for philosophizing, but the person who is ready to transfer the prescriptions of philosophy to his deeds and to live in accord with them.

Actions aligned with nature. Appropriate actions (kathēkonta) are those that are in accordance with nature. They are actions that a rational being would naturally undertake to preserve itself and contribute to the well-being of society. These actions are not inherently good or bad but rather value-neutral.

From appropriate to perfect. The Stoics distinguished between appropriate actions and "completely correct actions" (katorthōmata). The latter are performed by those who possess virtue. These actions are not only in accordance with nature but also spring from a virtuous disposition.

The importance of intention. The Stoics emphasized the importance of intention and motivation in ethical action. While the outcome of an action may be beyond our control, we can always control our intentions and strive to act virtuously. This focus on inner character is a hallmark of Stoic ethics.

10. Stoicism's Enduring Legacy: From Antiquity to Today

Stoicism was not only one of the most popular schools of philosophy in antiquity but has also remained a constant presence throughout the history of Western philosophy.

A timeless philosophy. Despite its origins in ancient Greece, Stoicism has continued to resonate with thinkers and practitioners across centuries. Its principles have been adapted and reinterpreted in various cultural and historical contexts. This enduring appeal speaks to the timelessness of its core insights.

Key figures in the Stoic legacy:

• Seneca: Roman statesman and playwright whose writings popularized Stoicism
• Epictetus: Former slave whose teachings emphasized self-control and acceptance
• Marcus Aurelius: Roman emperor whose Meditations offer a personal reflection on Stoic principles

Modern relevance. Stoicism continues to offer valuable guidance for navigating the challenges of modern life. Its emphasis on resilience, self-control, and living in accordance with nature remains relevant in a world often characterized by uncertainty and stress.

Last updated: March 11, 2025