Philosophy in the Islamic World

1. Islamic Philosophy Flourished Across Faiths and Languages

Covering philosophy in the Islamic world “without any gaps” means examining one of the most important stretches in the history of Jewish philosophy.

Beyond Religious Boundaries. Philosophy in the Islamic world wasn't confined to Muslims. Christians and Jews played vital roles, especially in translation and commentary. This interfaith collaboration enriched the intellectual landscape.

Arabic as Lingua Franca. Arabic became the primary language for philosophical discourse, even for non-Arab thinkers. This facilitated the exchange of ideas across diverse regions and cultures.

Geographical Breadth. The Islamic world encompassed a vast territory, from Spain to Afghanistan. This geographical diversity contributed to the richness and complexity of philosophical thought.

2. Avicenna: The Pivotal Figure Bridging Traditions

After Avicenna, philosophy in the eastern heartlands of the Islamic empire was consumed with the task of responding to him, instead of Aristotle.

A Decisive Intervention. Avicenna synthesized Aristotelianism, Neoplatonism, and Islamic theology, creating a new philosophical framework. His work became the central point of reference for subsequent generations.

Medical and Philosophical Legacy. Avicenna's influence extended beyond philosophy to medicine, where his "Canon of Medicine" became a standard text for centuries. This highlights the interconnectedness of knowledge in the Islamic world.

Avicennan Language. Even those who opposed Avicenna adopted his terminology and conceptual framework. This demonstrates the pervasive influence of his thought on the language of philosophy.

3. Kalām: Reasoned Theology Shaped Philosophical Discourse

Kalām was indisputably theological in character, consisting mostly of disputes over the correct understanding of Islamic revelation, albeit that these disputes often appealed to rational intuition and argument.

Rational Theology. Kalām, or rational theology, used reason and argument to interpret Islamic revelation. This approach distinguished it from more traditionalist interpretations.

Mu'tazilites and Divine Justice. The Mu'tazilites emphasized God's oneness and justice, leading them to defend free will and deny the eternity of the Koran. Their ideas influenced later philosophers.

Attributes of Essence vs. Action. Mu'tazilites distinguished between God's essence and His actions, attempting to reconcile divine unity with the descriptions of God in the Koran. This distinction would be taken up and reworked by later thinkers.

4. Andalusia: A Unique Synthesis of Cultures and Ideas

If you take Jewish and Muslim philosophy together, as I am doing, then you see just how enormous were the contributions of philosophers living on the Iberian peninsula from the eleventh to the thirteenth century.

Western Fringe. Andalusia, or Muslim Spain, developed a distinct philosophical tradition, less influenced by Avicenna than the East. This allowed for a continued engagement with Greek sources.

Convivencia. The relative tolerance of Andalusian society fostered intellectual exchange between Muslims, Jews, and Christians. This created a unique cultural and intellectual environment.

Maimonides and Averroes. Andalusia produced two of the greatest philosophers of the medieval period: the Jewish Maimonides and the Muslim Averroes. Their works represent the pinnacle of philosophical achievement in the region.

5. The Five Eternals: Al-Razi's Challenge to Monotheism

He devised a theory according to which the universe was created in time, but was preceded by no fewer than five entities, all of them eternal principles.

Eternal Principles. Al-Rāzī posited five eternal principles: God, soul, matter, time, and place. This challenged the traditional Islamic concept of God as the sole eternal being.

Influence of Plato. Al-Rāzī's theory drew inspiration from Plato's "Timaeus," which describes a divine craftsman fashioning the universe out of pre-existing matter. This shows the continued influence of Greek thought.

Rejection of Prophecy. Al-Rāzī rejected the need for prophecy, arguing that reason is sufficient for guiding human action. This put him at odds with mainstream Islamic thought.

6. The Baghdad School: Integrating Greek Thought

They commented on Aristotle. They applied the tools of Hellenic thought to expound Christian doctrine. And they copied out manuscripts in Greek, which is why so much ancient philosophy survives today in its original language.

Christian Intermediaries. The Baghdad school, primarily composed of Christian thinkers, played a crucial role in translating and interpreting Greek philosophical texts. They served as a bridge between ancient and Islamic thought.

Aristotelian Revival. The Baghdad school championed the study of Aristotle, emphasizing the importance of logic and demonstrative knowledge. This helped to shape the development of philosophy in the Islamic world.

Al-Fārābī's Legacy. Al-Fārābī, a Muslim member of the Baghdad school, became one of the most influential philosophers of the Islamic world. His works on logic, metaphysics, and political philosophy had a lasting impact.

7. The Maimonidean Controversy: Reason vs. Revelation

The greatest philosopher of medieval Judaism, Maimonides was also a legal scholar. His most important contribution in this field was the Mishneh Torah, or Second Law, a systematization and rationalization of the legal teachings of these rabbinic texts.

Rationalizing Judaism. Maimonides sought to reconcile Jewish religious teachings with Aristotelian philosophy. This project sparked controversy and debate within the Jewish community.

The Guide for the Perplexed. Maimonides' "Guide for the Perplexed" offered allegorical interpretations of biblical passages, attempting to harmonize them with reason. This approach was met with both admiration and criticism.

The Maimonidean Controversy. The debate over Maimonides' ideas led to divisions within Jewish communities, with some embracing his rationalism and others rejecting it in favor of more traditional interpretations.

8. Sufism: Mystical Insights Beyond Reason

For many readers, the most unexpected feature of the book will probably be the attention I devote to non-Muslim thinkers in the Islamic world.

Mystical Tradition. Sufism, or Islamic mysticism, emphasized direct experience of God through practices like meditation and asceticism. This offered an alternative path to knowledge beyond reason.

Ibn ʿArabī and the Unity of Being. Ibn ʿArabī, a major figure in Sufism, developed the doctrine of "unity of being," which emphasized the oneness of all things with God. This idea influenced later Sufi thinkers.

Rūmī's Poetic Expression. Jalāl al-Dīn Rūmī, a Persian poet and Sufi mystic, expressed mystical insights through evocative and beautiful verse. His poems continue to be widely read and admired today.

9. Ibn Khaldun: Solidarity Drives Dynastic Cycles

For him, first philosophy should study the first cause, which is of course God. Thus one of the main topics of the work is what we can say about God—or rather, what we can’t say.

Tribal Solidarity. Ibn Khaldūn's theory of history centered on the concept of ʿaṣabiyya, or tribal solidarity, as the driving force behind dynastic rise and fall. This provided a framework for understanding political change.

Sedentary vs. Nomadic. Ibn Khaldūn contrasted the nomadic lifestyle with the sedentary culture of cities. He saw the transition from nomadic virtue to urban decadence as a key factor in dynastic decline.

Limitations of Reason. Ibn Khaldūn recognized the limits of reason, acknowledging the importance of religious belief and mystical insight. This balanced his emphasis on empirical observation and historical analysis.

10. The Mongol Age: A Surprising Catalyst for Philosophy

Ultimately, we will see the Islamic world fracturing into three great empires: the Ottomans, the Safavids in Persia, and the Mughal empire in India.

Destruction and Rebirth. The Mongol invasions caused widespread destruction and upheaval in the Islamic world. However, they also led to the movement of scholars and the exchange of ideas.

Patronage and Innovation. Mongol rulers, after converting to Islam, often sponsored scientific and philosophical activity. This created new opportunities for intellectuals.

Al-Ṭūsī and Marāgha. Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī, a prominent figure of the Mongol age, established a research center and observatory at Marāgha. This institution became a hub for scientific and philosophical inquiry.

11. Safavid Iran: A Shiite Renaissance of Thought

Ultimately, we will see the Islamic world fracturing into three great empires: the Ottomans, the Safavids in Persia, and the Mughal empire in India.

Shiite Identity. The Safavid dynasty, which ruled Persia from the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries, promoted Shiite Islam. This had a significant impact on the intellectual and cultural life of the region.

Mullā Ṣadrā and Transcendent Philosophy. Mullā Ṣadrā, the greatest philosopher of Safavid Iran, developed a unique system that integrated Avicennism, Sufism, and Illuminationism. His ideas continue to be influential today.

The School of Iṣfahān. Iṣfahān, the Safavid capital, became a major center for philosophical and theological study. This period saw a flourishing of intellectual activity and the development of new philosophical approaches.

12. Encounters with Europe: Modernity and Tradition

Ultimately, we will see the Islamic world fracturing into three great empires: the Ottomans, the Safavids in Persia, and the Mughal empire in India.

Colonial Influence. The encounter with European colonialism in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries had a profound impact on Islamic thought. Muslim intellectuals grappled with questions of modernity, tradition, and identity.

Reform Movements. Reform movements emerged in response to colonial domination, seeking to revitalize Islam and adapt it to the challenges of the modern world. These movements often drew on both Islamic and European ideas.

Diverse Responses. Muslim intellectuals responded to European thought in various ways, ranging from outright rejection to enthusiastic embrace. This led to a complex and dynamic intellectual landscape.

Last updated: March 3, 2025