Conquests and Cultures

1. Conquest Shapes Culture: A World Transformed

“We do not live in the past, but the past in us.”

Conquest's pervasive influence. Conquest is not merely a historical event but a powerful force that continues to shape the world's cultures, languages, economies, and moral frameworks. The Western Hemisphere, for instance, is a testament to this, with European languages and moral standards dominating even among those who critique European civilization. Conquests, like migrations, have changed the cultural landscape of the world.

Ambiguous role. Conquest's role in spreading human capital is varied. When advanced societies conquer less developed ones, knowledge, skills, and technology spread. However, when less developed conquer more advanced, it can lead to the destruction of existing human capital and hinder civilization's progress.

Beyond tragedy. While conquests often involve atrocities, their consequences extend far beyond these tragedies. They can lead to the exchange of skills, ideas, and technologies, ultimately reshaping entire ways of life and expanding possibilities for future generations.

2. The British: From Conquered to Conquerors

How, in the first place, did a peripheral island rise from primitive squalor to world domination?

From periphery to power. Britain's history is a story of transformation, from a backward province of the Roman Empire to the center of a global empire. This journey involved successive conquests, cultural infusions, and a unique combination of geographic advantages and institutional developments.

Roman influence. The Roman conquest brought advanced civilization to Britain, but the subsequent barbarian invasions led to a period of retrogression. Later, the Norman conquest introduced French language and culture, shaping the English aristocracy and legal system.

Industrial revolution. England's unique combination of factors, including a dependable legal framework, a commercial tradition, and geographic advantages, propelled it to become the first industrial nation, leaving a lasting impact on the world.

3. Slavs: Echoes of Empires and Geographic Divides

In eastern Europe, successions of regimes have been trying for a thousand years and more to impose a viable political hegemony on the scores of ethnic and national groups in the area, invariably in vain.

A history of subjugation. The Slavs of Eastern Europe have experienced a long history of conquests and subjugation under various empires, including the Mongols, Germans, Ottoman Turks, and Habsburgs. This has resulted in cultural fragmentation and a lag in economic and social development compared to Western Europe.

Geographic barriers. Eastern Europe's geography, characterized by a lack of access to oceans, harsh climates, and mountainous terrain, has hindered economic and cultural interactions, contributing to its relative backwardness.

Cultural influences. Despite these challenges, the Slavs have been influenced by various cultures, including Roman, Byzantine, and Germanic. These influences have shaped their languages, religions, and social structures, creating a complex and diverse cultural landscape.

4. Africa's Geography: A Continent Shaped by Barriers

In understanding Black Africa, geography is more important than history.

Geographic isolation. Sub-Saharan Africa's geography, marked by vast deserts, limited navigable rivers, and disease environments, has historically isolated its peoples from the outside world and from one another.

Limited development. This isolation has hindered economic and cultural development, leading to linguistic fragmentation, tribalism, and vulnerability to outside conquerors.

Forms of subjugation. The subjugation of African peoples has taken the form of territorial conquests and mass enslavement, both heavily influenced by the continent's geography.

5. Western Hemisphere Indians: Conquest and Cultural Clash

The American continents existed geologically, much as we now know them, before the first human crossed over from the Eurasian mainland.

Diverse societies. The indigenous peoples of the Western Hemisphere were diverse, ranging from complex urban civilizations like the Maya, Aztecs, and Incas to hunter-gatherer tribes. However, they lacked key technologies and animals found in the Old World.

Disease and conquest. The arrival of Europeans brought devastating diseases that decimated Indian populations, facilitating European conquest and cultural dominance.

Uneven impact. The impact of European conquest varied across the hemisphere, with some regions experiencing greater cultural and biological amalgamation than others.

6. Human Capital: The Engine of Progress

What matters ultimately is not what themes or conclusions are proposed here, but the facts behind those themes and conclusions.

Beyond material wealth. The histories examined in this trilogy underscore the paramount importance of human capital—skills, knowledge, institutions, and attitudes—in driving economic and social progress.

Cultural transmission. The transfer of human capital from one group to another, whether through migration, conquest, or cultural exchange, has been a key factor in the rise and fall of civilizations.

Uneven distribution. The uneven distribution of human capital, both within and between societies, has created vast disparities in wealth, power, and well-being.

7. The Double-Edged Sword of Cultural Diffusion

While migrations have transferred knowledge, skills, technology, and economically valuable aptitudes around the world, conquests have played a more varied and ambiguous role.

Cultural exchange. Contact between cultures, whether through migration, conquest, or commerce, can lead to the exchange of material goods, skills, and ideas, enriching both societies.

Dissemination challenges. However, cultural diffusion is not always automatic or uniform. Uneven dissemination can create greater inequality and social tensions within conquered societies.

Resistance and collaboration. Different groups within a conquered nation may react differently to the conqueror, leading to lasting intergroup bitterness and conflict.

8. Ideas, Ideologies, and the Unfolding of History

What matters ultimately is not what themes or conclusions are proposed here, but the facts behind those themes and conclusions.

Ideas' influence. Ideas and ideologies have played a significant role in shaping history, but their origins often lie in practical realities rather than purely intellectual exercises.

Freedom's evolution. The concept of freedom, for example, emerged gradually in Europe as a result of specific historical circumstances, rather than being imposed by any particular ideology.

The power of moral imperatives. Moral imperatives, such as the anti-slavery movement, can have a profound impact on political and social change, especially when backed by military power.

9. The Enduring Legacy of Conquest

Explosive issues of racial differences can be assessed more rationally on an international scale and over many centuries of history, viewing other times and peoples more dispassionately than we can our own, and drawing on a wider variety of evidence produced under a wider range of circumstances than in the contemporary world around us.

Beyond doctrine. The study of conquests and cultures reveals the complexities of history and the limitations of abstract theoretical models.

The importance of knowledge. What matters most is not the conclusions reached but the knowledge and understanding acquired in the process of reaching them.

A broader perspective. Examining historical events on an international scale and over many centuries provides a more rational and nuanced understanding of racial and cultural issues.

Last updated: March 15, 2025