Collapse

1. Andropov's Conservative Reforms Paved the Way

The task is . . . to work out a system of logistical, economic, and moral steps that would make old modes of work unprofitable, that would encourage renovation of equipment and managers.

Andropov's Vision. Yuri Andropov, Brezhnev's successor, initiated controlled, conservative reforms aimed at modernizing the Soviet economy and combating corruption. His experience in suppressing the Hungarian uprising of 1956 shaped his belief in the necessity of reforms from above, coupled with a firm hand in dealing with dissent.

Economic Preparations. Andropov tasked Nikolai Ryzhkov with mapping out economic reforms, focusing on improving work discipline and cracking down on the shadow economy. He also explored the possibility of leasing Soviet economic assets to foreign companies, drawing inspiration from Lenin's New Economic Policy (NEP).

Limited Time. Andropov's reforms were cut short by his declining health and death in 1984. However, he laid the groundwork for future changes and identified Mikhail Gorbachev as his successor, entrusting him with the task of continuing the renovation of the Soviet Union.

2. Gorbachev's Neo-Leninism: A Revolutionary Gamble

We just can’t go on living like this.

Gorbachev's Beliefs. Mikhail Gorbachev, unlike Andropov, was a true believer in Lenin's ideals and sought to revive the Soviet Union through "perestroika" (restructuring) and "glasnost" (openness). He aimed to dismantle the Stalinist system and return to a more democratic form of socialism.

Radical Reforms. Gorbachev's reforms included decentralization, democratization, and glasnost, which aimed to liberate the USSR from the "dictatorship of bureaucracy." He also sought to accelerate scientific and technical progress, investing heavily in technological modernization.

Unintended Outcomes. Gorbachev's neo-Leninist approach, while well-intentioned, proved to be a revolutionary gamble that ultimately undermined the Soviet system. His policies unleashed anti-communist and nationalist movements, contributing to the disintegration of the USSR.

3. Misguided Economic Reforms Accelerated the Collapse

We are moving forward as if in jungles with a machete. Everyone is blood-splattered, skin is torn and bruised, quarrels erupt. Yet we keep moving. And there are already clearings in the thick forest.

Flawed Economic Policies. Gorbachev's economic reforms, such as the Law on State Enterprises and the Law on Cooperatives, aimed to decentralize the Soviet economy and introduce market mechanisms. However, these reforms undermined the old stabilizing mechanisms without creating effective new ones.

Financial Instability. The ban on alcohol, the Chernobyl disaster, and the decline in oil prices further destabilized the Soviet economy. The Law on Cooperatives created loopholes in the financial system, leading to inflation and macroeconomic instability.

Economic Crisis. The Soviet economic crisis played a central role in the state's demise, contributing to mass discontent and mobilization against the central authority. The purposeful and unintended destruction of the Soviet economy may be considered a principal cause of Soviet disintegration.

4. Glasnost Unleashed Unintended Consequences

In some unfathomable way, two different men co-existed in Andropov—a man of the Russian intelligentsia, in the common sense of this word, and a bureaucrat who saw his vocation as a service to the Party.

Policy of Openness. Glasnost, Gorbachev's policy of openness and transparency, aimed to promote free discussion of problems and expose the communist past. While it contributed to the rise of anti-communist and nationalist movements, it also eroded the Party's ideological legitimacy.

Erosion of Ideology. Glasnost led to the discrediting of communist ideology and the Soviet system, contributing to mass discontent and mobilization against the central authority. However, it is not entirely clear what role ideological breakdown played in the disintegration of the Soviet statehood.

Uncontrollable Forces. Glasnost magnified anti-systemic energy, accumulated by many years of Soviet one-party rule, and released it into the domain of public politics. This created a widespread feeling of doom, ultimately leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy.

5. The "New Thinking" in Foreign Policy: A Double-Edged Sword

The most complex problem . . . is that we cannot avoid the strains of military expenditures both for us and the other socialist countries.

Gorbachev's Vision. Gorbachev's "new thinking" in foreign policy aimed to end the Cold War confrontation and integrate the Soviet Union into the global community. He proposed a new world order based on "all-human interests" and renounced the use of force in international affairs.

Geopolitical Retreat. Gorbachev's policies led to the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan and Eastern Europe, as well as arms control agreements with the United States. While these policies were praised in the West, they also created a power vacuum and destabilized the Soviet bloc.

Western Skepticism. The Bush administration, initially skeptical of Gorbachev's motives, sought to press the Soviet leader further, demanding more concessions and reductions in military spending. This created a tension between Gorbachev's desire for Western cooperation and the need to maintain Soviet security.

6. Nationalism: The Unforeseen Destabilizing Force

The task is . . . to work out a system of logistical, economic, and moral steps that would make old modes of work unprofitable, that would encourage renovation of equipment and managers.

Multi-National State. The Soviet Union was a multi-national state bound to collapse along its seams, just like other empires did. Nationalist movements began in Soviet borderlands, but then created enough resonance to mobilize the Russians in the core of “the empire.”

Ethnic Conflicts. The rise of nationalist movements in the Baltic republics, South Caucasus, and other regions created ethnic conflicts and challenged the authority of the central government. Gorbachev's attempts to appease nationalist sentiments often backfired, leading to further instability.

Failure to Defend the State. The repeated failure of the central state to defend itself against nationalist movements was a crucial factor in the Soviet collapse. The defection of the Russian Federation, the core of the Soviet Union, further accelerated the process of disintegration.

7. Yeltsin's Rise: A Catalyst for Disintegration

We just can’t go on living like this.

Gorbachev's Rival. Boris Yeltsin, initially a protégé of Gorbachev, emerged as his main rival and a leading voice of the opposition. Yeltsin's populist appeal and calls for radical change resonated with many Russians, who had grown disillusioned with Gorbachev's reforms.

Russian Separatism. Yeltsin's focus on the Russian Federation and his calls for its sovereignty contributed to the disintegration of the Soviet Union. His actions emboldened other republics to seek independence, further weakening the central government.

Power Struggle. The power struggle between Gorbachev and Yeltsin created a political vacuum and undermined the authority of the Soviet state. Their conflicting visions and competing agendas further destabilized the country and accelerated its demise.

8. The August Coup: A Fatal Miscalculation

They’ve finally got rid of him, that windbag.

The Coup Attempt. In August 1991, hardliners within the Soviet government launched a coup attempt to remove Gorbachev from power and restore the old order. The coup, however, failed due to a lack of planning, disorganization, and popular resistance.

Yeltsin's Resistance. Boris Yeltsin played a key role in resisting the coup, rallying support from the Russian people and denouncing the junta. His actions solidified his position as a leader of the opposition and further weakened Gorbachev's authority.

The End of the Union. The failure of the August coup marked the end of the Soviet Union. The republics, emboldened by the junta's defeat, declared their independence, leading to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991.

9. The West's Role: Support, Skepticism, and Missed Opportunities

They’ve finally got rid of him, that windbag.

Western Influence. The West, particularly the United States, played a complex role in the Soviet collapse. While Western pressure contributed to the Soviet Union's economic and political problems, Western support for Gorbachev's reforms also helped to shape the course of events.

Missed Opportunities. The West's initial skepticism of Gorbachev and its focus on arms control and geopolitical competition may have missed opportunities to provide more meaningful support for Soviet reforms. The lack of a clear Western strategy for dealing with the Soviet Union's disintegration also contributed to the chaos and uncertainty of the final years.

Legacy of the Collapse. The Soviet collapse gave birth to a new world order, with the United States as the sole superpower. However, the legacy of the Soviet demise continues to shape international relations, particularly in the relationship between Russia and the West.

Last updated: March 7, 2025