The Years That Matter Most

1. Elite Colleges as Engines or Obstacles of Mobility

The American system of higher education has the potential to be a powerful engine of mobility, able to reliably lift young people from poverty to the middle class, and from the middle class to affluence.

Mobility potential. American higher education could be a powerful force for upward mobility, enabling individuals to rise above their socioeconomic origins. However, the reality is often quite different. The system frequently reinforces existing inequalities, hindering mobility for many.

The paradox of access. Elite colleges, despite their potential to transform lives, are disproportionately populated by wealthy students who benefit the least from the experience. This creates a paradox where the institutions best equipped to drive mobility are least accessible to those who need them most.

Shannen's story. Shannen Torres's experience, rejected by Penn but accepted by Stanford, highlights the arbitrariness and capriciousness of the admissions process. This randomness undermines faith in a system that should reward hard work and merit, not luck.

2. The Test-Prep Arms Race and the Illusion of Meritocracy

The edge that parents are seeking when they bring their kids to PrepMatters is, by contrast, perfectly legal.

The test-prep industry. The intense pressure surrounding elite college admissions has fueled a lucrative test-prep industry, where affluent families seek to gain an advantage in an already unfair system. This creates an illusion of meritocracy, where success is often determined by access to resources rather than inherent ability.

Ned Johnson's approach. Ned Johnson, a sought-after test-prep tutor, focuses on reducing anxiety and teaching test-taking tricks rather than imparting academic knowledge. This underscores the fact that standardized tests often measure test-wiseness rather than true academic ability.

The Singer scandal. The college admissions scandal involving William "Rick" Singer reveals the extreme lengths to which some wealthy parents will go to secure their children's admission to elite colleges. This further erodes the notion of a fair and meritocratic system.

3. Elite Colleges' Spending Doesn't Reach Those Who Need It Most

Despite all the headlines about skyrocketing tuitions at elite colleges, the most selective schools in the country are now actually losing money on each student they enroll.

The spending gap. Highly selective colleges spend significantly more per student than less selective ones, creating a vast disparity in educational resources. This spending gap has widened dramatically over the past few decades, further exacerbating inequalities.

The "dynasty" model. Elite colleges operate on a "dynasty" model, investing heavily in their students with the expectation that they will become wealthy donors in the future. This perpetuates a cycle of privilege, as the wealthiest institutions continue to attract the most affluent students.

Harvard's fundraising. Harvard's record-breaking fundraising campaigns demonstrate the concentration of wealth in elite institutions. Despite raising billions of dollars, Harvard's freshman classes have become increasingly affluent, highlighting the disconnect between resources and access.

4. The "Income-Typical" Student and Constrained Aspirations

Always go to the most selective school that will admit you.

Hoxby's research. Economist Caroline Hoxby's research reveals that high-achieving, low-income students often behave differently from their wealthier peers when it comes to applying to college. They tend to have more constrained aspirations and apply to less selective institutions.

The "income-typical" student. Hoxby identifies a cohort of "income-typical" students whose college decisions are defined by their socioeconomic status rather than their academic ability. These students often lack information about elite colleges and the financial aid opportunities available to them.

Clara's dilemma. Clara, a high-achieving student from an affluent family, grapples with the decision of whether to attend Yale, her parents' alma mater, or Middlebury, a school that feels like a better fit for her. Ultimately, she chooses Yale, illustrating the pressure to attend the most selective institution possible.

5. The Complexities of Family, Loyalty, and College Choice

You don’t take silver when you get gold.

Beyond simple economics. College decisions are not always the result of a simple cost-benefit analysis. Factors such as family loyalty, cultural values, and personal preferences often play a significant role.

Kim's story. Kim Henning's decision to attend Clemson rather than Cornell highlights the complexities of family and identity in college choice. Despite her academic achievements, Kim prioritizes proximity to home and a sense of belonging over prestige.

Trevor's experience. Kim's brother, Trevor, serves as a cautionary tale, his college flameout casting a shadow over Kim's aspirations. This underscores the emotional weight that college decisions can carry for families.

6. The Limits of Information and the Need for Holistic Support

There are no six-dollar solutions.

Hoxby's packets revisited. While Caroline Hoxby's packets aimed to provide low-income students with information about college opportunities, they often failed to address the deeper challenges these students face. Financial assistance and emotional support are often more critical than information alone.

CollegePoint's virtual advising. The CollegePoint initiative, which offered virtual college advising to high-achieving, low-income students, had a surprisingly small impact. This suggests that simply providing advice is not enough to overcome the systemic barriers these students face.

The importance of holistic support. Nicole Hurd, CEO of College Advising Corps, emphasizes the need for holistic support that addresses students' academic, financial, and emotional needs. This includes providing mentorship, financial literacy training, and a sense of belonging.

7. The SAT: A Tool for Equity or a Barrier to Opportunity?

We care if they go off track, if they betray themselves, if they don’t apply as broadly as they could.

Coleman's vision. David Coleman, as president of the College Board, sought to make the SAT a tool for equity by overhauling the test and partnering with Khan Academy to offer free test prep. However, these efforts have had limited success in leveling the playing field.

The "magic packet" revisited. The College Board's replication of Hoxby's packet experiment yielded disappointing results, suggesting that simply providing information is not enough to change students' behavior. This raises questions about the effectiveness of large-scale, bureaucratic interventions.

Hoxby's data. Caroline Hoxby's data reveals that high-prestige colleges do pay off for the students who attend them, and in fact they pay off in a big way. According to Hoxby’s data, if you attend a highly selective college where incoming freshmen have average SAT scores above about 1400 on a 1600-point scale (or about 30 on the ACT), your future lifetime earnings are likely to be more than $7 million—and that’s about $2 million more than you’ll earn if you take the identical skill set to a nonselective college.

8. The Importance of "Fit" and the Limits of Selectivity

You don’t take silver when you get gold.

Beyond selectivity. The pursuit of selectivity can overshadow the importance of finding a college that is the right fit for an individual student. Factors such as campus culture, academic programs, and personal connections should also be considered.

Kim's choice revisited. Kim Henning's decision to attend Clemson rather than Cornell, while seemingly irrational from a purely economic perspective, reflects her desire for a comfortable and supportive environment. This underscores the importance of considering students' individual needs and preferences.

Clara's choice revisited. Clara's choice to attend Yale over Middlebury, while seemingly driven by prestige, also reflects her desire to connect with her family and follow in their footsteps. This highlights the complex interplay of factors that influence college decisions.

9. The "Privileged Poor" and the Two Worlds of Elite Colleges

You don’t even want to be here.

Jack's research. Sociologist Anthony Abraham Jack's research reveals the existence of two distinct categories of low-income students at elite colleges: the "Privileged Poor" and the "Doubly Disadvantaged." The Privileged Poor, who attended elite private schools on scholarship, are often better prepared for the culture of elite colleges.

The "Doubly Disadvantaged." The Doubly Disadvantaged, who come from low-income backgrounds and attended under-resourced public schools, often face greater challenges in navigating the social and academic landscape of elite colleges. They may struggle to connect with their peers and may feel alienated by the dominant culture.

The importance of cultural capital. Jack's research highlights the importance of cultural capital in navigating elite institutions. Students who possess the knowledge, manners, and tastes valued by these institutions are more likely to succeed.

10. The Power of Belonging and the Challenge of Transformation

I just wish they could have at least—I wish it were possible for them to meet me.

The need for connection. The experience of KiKi Gilbert underscores the importance of finding a sense of belonging on college campuses. Despite her academic achievements, KiKi struggles to connect with her peers and feels like an outsider at Princeton.

The immigrant narrative. KiKi's experience also highlights the complex dynamics within the black community at elite colleges. The overrepresentation of black immigrants can create a sense of rootlessness for African American students whose families have deep roots in the United States.

The limits of transformation. While elite colleges have the potential to transform lives, they often fail to address the underlying social and economic inequalities that shape students' experiences. This underscores the need for more holistic approaches to student support.

11. The Enduring Power of the GI Bill and the Promise of Higher Ed

That’s just what America intends for you to do.

The GI Bill as a model. The GI Bill of Rights, which provided educational benefits to World War II veterans, serves as a powerful example of how government investment can expand access to higher education and promote social mobility. The GI Bill transformed American society, creating a new middle class and fueling economic growth.

Obama's challenge. President Obama's pledge to make the United States the world leader in college attainment by 2020 echoes the ambition of the GI Bill era. However, the failure to meet this goal highlights the challenges of addressing systemic inequalities in higher education.

A call for action. The stories of Shannen, KiKi, Kim, and countless other students underscore the need for a renewed commitment to making higher education a true engine of opportunity for all Americans. This requires addressing issues of access, affordability, and support, and creating a system that values both academic excellence and social mobility.

Last updated: March 3, 2025