The Ten Types of Human

1. The human mind is modular, with specialized systems for survival and reproduction

Our abilities to see, to speak, to find someone beautiful, to reciprocate a favor, to fear disease, to fall in love, to initiate an attack, to experience moral outrage, to navigate a landscape, and myriad others – are possible only because there is a vast and heterogenous array of complex computational machinery supporting and regulating these activities.

Evolutionary adaptations. The human mind has evolved specialized mental modules to address recurring life challenges. These modules process information from our environment and guide our behavior in ways that enhanced our ancestors' survival and reproductive success.

Functional specialization. Just as our bodies have evolved specialized organs, our brains have developed specific neural networks for different tasks. For example:

• The amygdala processes emotions and threat detection
• The hippocampus is crucial for memory formation
• The prefrontal cortex is involved in decision-making and impulse control

These modules work together to create our complex cognitive abilities and behaviors, allowing us to navigate the social and physical world effectively.

2. Our ability to perceive pain in others is an evolved adaptation for social bonding

We are arguably engaged in an ongoing process of dealing with death – 'managing' it, as TMT theorists like Sheldon Solomon say. As in Ingmar Bergman's film The Seventh Seal, constantly playing chess with it.

Empathy and social cohesion. The ability to perceive and respond to others' pain is a crucial adaptation for social species like humans. This capacity allows us to form strong bonds, cooperate effectively, and support one another in times of need.

Neural basis of empathy:

• Mirror neurons fire both when we perform an action and when we observe others performing the same action
• The anterior insula and anterior cingulate cortex are activated when we experience pain and when we observe others in pain
• These shared neural networks enable us to understand and resonate with others' experiences

However, our capacity for empathy has limits. Cognitive overload and emotional burnout can occur when we're exposed to too much suffering, leading to a phenomenon known as "compassion fatigue." This limitation may be an adaptive feature, preventing us from becoming overwhelmed by others' pain and maintaining our own well-being.

3. Ostracism is a powerful social tool used to maintain group cohesion and norms

As Marian Wong puts it, 'Once they're outside the coral, they're basically eaten. Stay in the coral, you're safe. Out? Eaten. So it's pretty serious. It's a credible threat.'

Social control mechanism. Ostracism, or social exclusion, is a universal human behavior that serves to maintain group cohesion and enforce social norms. By threatening or implementing exclusion, groups can discourage disruptive behavior and promote cooperation.

Effects of ostracism:

• Activates the same brain regions as physical pain
• Lowers self-esteem and sense of belonging
• Increases conformity to group norms
• Can lead to aggressive or antisocial behavior in extreme cases

The power of ostracism demonstrates the fundamental human need for social connection and belonging. This need is so strong that even brief experiences of exclusion can have significant psychological and behavioral impacts, highlighting the importance of social relationships in human evolution and daily life.

4. Humans have developed mental mechanisms to manage the terror of death

Elbert concludes that they believed further research will result in a 'further integration' of terror management theory and evolutionary perspectives.

Terror Management Theory (TMT). Humans have developed psychological defenses to cope with the awareness of their own mortality. These mechanisms help us function despite the potentially paralyzing fear of death.

Key aspects of TMT:

• Cultural worldviews provide a sense of meaning and permanence
• Self-esteem acts as a buffer against death anxiety
• Close relationships offer a form of symbolic immortality

Research has shown that reminders of death can influence various behaviors, including:

• Increased adherence to cultural values
• Heightened in-group favoritism and out-group hostility
• Greater risk-taking or conservatism, depending on cultural norms

Understanding these mechanisms can provide insights into human behavior, particularly in contexts where mortality is salient, such as during pandemics, wars, or other crises.

5. Our perception of beauty is partly innate and influences social interactions

Slater's conclusion is that humans are 'born with a very detailed representation of the human face'.

Innate preferences. Research suggests that humans have an innate ability to recognize and prefer certain facial features, even from a very young age. This preference for "beauty" likely has evolutionary roots, possibly signaling health, fertility, or good genes.

Impacts of beauty perception:

• Influences mate selection and reproductive success
• Affects social interactions and opportunities
• Can lead to biases in various contexts (e.g., employment, legal proceedings)

However, it's important to note that beauty standards also have significant cultural components and can vary across time and societies. The interplay between innate preferences and cultural influences shapes our complex relationship with beauty and attractiveness.

6. Aggression can become addictive and pleasurable in certain contexts

Once killing has started, it causes a 'threat' to one's sense of self – that inner cost. One way to cope with that threat, paradoxically enough, is to carry on killing.

Appetitive aggression. In certain contexts, particularly in war or conflict situations, individuals can develop a form of aggression that becomes rewarding and pleasurable. This phenomenon, known as appetitive aggression, can serve as a coping mechanism in extremely violent environments.

Factors contributing to appetitive aggression:

• Desensitization to violence through repeated exposure
• Activation of reward centers in the brain during aggressive acts
• Cognitive restructuring to justify violent behavior
• Group dynamics and peer pressure

Understanding appetitive aggression is crucial for developing effective interventions for individuals who have been exposed to or participated in extreme violence, such as child soldiers or combatants in prolonged conflicts.

7. Child soldiers demonstrate the plasticity and adaptability of the human brain

'The human brain up to the age of around ten is at the peak of its neuroplasticity. That means you can effectively sculpt how you want the brain to function. Then that functioning can become locked in. It's very hard to change. Not impossible, but hard.'

Neuroplasticity and adaptation. The human brain, especially in childhood, has a remarkable ability to adapt to its environment. This plasticity allows children to learn and adjust to even extreme circumstances, such as being involved in armed conflict.

Effects of early trauma on child soldiers:

• Altered brain structure and function
• Changes in stress response systems
• Potential for developing appetitive aggression
• Difficulties with emotional regulation and social relationships

The case of child soldiers highlights both the adaptability of the human brain and the potential long-term consequences of early traumatic experiences. It underscores the importance of early intervention and rehabilitation for children exposed to violence and conflict.

8. Trauma can be passed down through generations, affecting future societies

'The thing we're learning about trauma,' Tottenham says, 'is that it can be passed on in the genome. That's what the accumulating evidence tells us. Thus the damage caused to children enlisted in combat groups in CAR does not just remain with them. It will have consequences for their offspring – and the future of that country.'

Intergenerational trauma. Traumatic experiences can have effects that extend beyond the individual, influencing future generations through both biological and social mechanisms.

Mechanisms of trauma transmission:

• Epigenetic changes that alter gene expression
• Alterations in parenting behaviors and attachment styles
• Societal and cultural changes that perpetuate cycles of violence

The concept of intergenerational trauma has significant implications for understanding and addressing long-term effects of conflicts, oppression, and other forms of collective trauma. It emphasizes the need for holistic, long-term approaches to healing and reconciliation in post-conflict societies.

Last updated: January 25, 2025