The Social Construction of Reality

1. Reality is Socially Constructed Through Knowledge

The basic contentions of the argument of this book are implicit in its title and sub-title, namely, that reality is socially constructed and that the sociology of knowledge must analyse the process in which this occurs.

Defining Reality and Knowledge. Reality is the quality of phenomena we recognize as independent of our will, while knowledge is the certainty that these phenomena are real and possess specific characteristics. The sociology of knowledge examines how societies establish what is considered real and known, focusing on the social processes that shape our understanding of the world.

Social Relativity of Reality. What is considered real varies across different societies and social contexts. A Tibetan monk's reality differs significantly from that of an American businessman, and a criminal's knowledge contrasts with that of a criminologist. This social relativity necessitates a "sociology of knowledge" to analyze how specific realities and knowledge systems are tied to particular social contexts.

Constructing Reality. The sociology of knowledge explores not only the variety of knowledge across societies but also the processes by which any body of knowledge becomes socially established as reality. It investigates how knowledge is developed, transmitted, and maintained in social situations, leading to the formation of a taken-for-granted reality for individuals within a society.

2. Everyday Knowledge Shapes Our Perceptions

Common-sense knowledge is the knowledge I share with others in the normal, self-evident routines of everyday life.

Taken-for-Granted Reality. Everyday life presents itself as a coherent world, interpreted by individuals and subjectively meaningful to them. This reality is taken for granted by ordinary members of society, forming the basis of their actions and thoughts. The sociologist aims to understand this reality as it is experienced, setting aside questions of its ultimate validity.

Organization of Reality. The reality of everyday life is organized around the "here" of our bodies and the "now" of our present. It is structured spatially and temporally, with varying degrees of closeness and remoteness. Language plays a crucial role in marking the coordinates of our lives, filling it with meaningful objects and social interactions.

Intersubjectivity and Common Sense. Everyday life is inherently intersubjective, shared with others who also comprehend the objectifications that order the world. This shared understanding constitutes common-sense knowledge, which is taken for granted and does not require additional verification. It is the foundation upon which social interactions and communications are built.

3. Social Interaction Reinforces Reality

In the face-to-face situation the other is appresented to me in a vivid present shared by both of us.

Face-to-Face Encounters. The most important experience of others occurs in face-to-face situations, where individuals are mutually present and expressive. This setting allows for a continuous interchange of subjective meanings, making the other's subjectivity vividly accessible. Typificatory schemes are used to apprehend and interact with others, but these schemes are flexible and subject to modification through ongoing negotiation.

Typification and Anonymity. Typifications of social interaction become progressively anonymous as they move away from the face-to-face situation. While direct encounters allow for individualization, more distant relationships rely on broader, more abstract categories. Social structure is the sum total of these typifications and the recurrent patterns of interaction they establish.

Social Structure and Interaction. Social structure emerges from the typifications and patterns of interaction that individuals develop in their daily lives. These patterns, whether in close relationships or anonymous encounters, shape how we perceive and engage with the social world, reinforcing the reality of our shared existence.

4. Language Objectifies and Transmits Knowledge

Language, which may be defined here as a system of vocal signs, is the most important sign system of human society.

Objectivation Through Language. Human expressivity is objectified through products of human activity, including signs, which serve as indices of subjective meanings. Language, as a system of vocal signs, is the most crucial objectivation, allowing for communication beyond the immediate "here and now." It enables the accumulation, preservation, and transmission of vast amounts of knowledge across generations.

Language and Reciprocity. In face-to-face situations, language possesses a unique reciprocity, synchronizing with the subjective intentions of conversants. This intersubjective closeness makes meanings objectively available, enhancing their reality. Language crystallizes and stabilizes subjectivity, making it "more real" to both the speaker and the listener.

Transcendence and Integration. Language transcends the "here and now," bridging different zones within everyday life and integrating them into a meaningful whole. It constructs symbols that are highly abstracted from everyday experience, yet capable of being "brought back" to influence daily life. This power makes language essential for the social construction of reality.

5. Institutions Provide Objective Social Order

Institutionalization occurs whenever there is a reciprocal typification of habitualized actions by types of actors.

Habitualization and Typification. Human activity is subject to habitualization, where repeated actions become patterned. Institutionalization occurs when these habitualized actions are reciprocally typified by types of actors. This means that institutions are shared typifications that define actions and actors, providing a sense of order and predictability.

Historicity and Control. Institutions have a history, built up over time through shared experiences. They also exert control over human conduct by setting predefined patterns, channeling behavior in specific directions. This control is inherent in institutionalization, prior to any specific mechanisms of sanctions.

Objectivity and Transmission. As institutions are transmitted to new generations, they acquire objectivity, existing over and beyond the individuals who embody them. This objectivity "thickens" and "hardens," confronting individuals as an external and coercive fact. The transmission of institutions requires legitimation, explaining and justifying the institutional order to new members.

6. Legitimation Sustains Social Reality

Legitimation is this process of 'explaining' and justifying.

Explaining and Justifying. Legitimation is the process of explaining and justifying the institutional order, providing cognitive validity and normative dignity to its practical imperatives. It integrates disparate institutional processes into a cohesive whole, making the social world objectively available and subjectively plausible.

Levels of Legitimation. Legitimation occurs on different levels, from simple affirmations to explicit theories and symbolic universes. Symbolic universes are comprehensive systems of meaning that integrate all aspects of the institutional order, providing a framework for understanding individual biography and social history.

Symbolic Universes and Order. Symbolic universes provide order for the subjective apprehension of biographical experience, integrating different spheres of reality and making them intelligible. They also legitimate the institutional order by placing it within a cosmic context, bestowing meaning and significance upon everyday life.

7. Socialization Internalizes Objective Reality

The institutions are there, external to him, persistent in their reality, whether he likes it or not.

Internalization and Objectivity. Socialization is the process by which individuals internalize the objective reality of society, making it subjectively real. This involves the apprehension of institutions as external and coercive facts, existing independently of individual volition. The individual's biography is located within the objective history of society.

Primary and Secondary Socialization. Primary socialization, occurring in childhood, is the first and most important process, through which individuals become members of society. Secondary socialization, which follows, inducts already socialized individuals into new sectors of the objective world. Both processes involve the internalization of knowledge, norms, and values.

Social Distribution of Knowledge. Socialization is shaped by the social distribution of knowledge, with different individuals and groups possessing different types of knowledge. This distribution influences the content and success of socialization, as well as the formation of individual identities.

8. Identity Formation is a Social Process

The individual becomes what he is addressed as by his significant others.

Identity and Social Interaction. Identity emerges from the dialectic between the individual and society, shaped by social processes and maintained through social relations. It is formed by taking on the roles and attitudes of significant others, internalizing their perspectives and making them one's own.

Roles and Typifications. Roles are types of actors within a social context, embodying institutionalized conduct and mediating specific sectors of knowledge. By playing roles, individuals participate in the social world, and by internalizing them, the world becomes subjectively real. The social stock of knowledge provides standards for role performance, influencing behavior and expectations.

Social Distribution of Knowledge. The social distribution of knowledge is structured in terms of what is generally relevant and what is relevant only to specific roles. This distribution shapes the individual's access to information and understanding, influencing their identity and participation in society.

9. Organism and Society Engage in a Dialectic

Man is biologically predestined to construct and to inhabit a world with others.

Biological Predestination. Humans are biologically predisposed to construct and inhabit a world with others, but the specific form of this world is not predetermined. The human organism is plastic and adaptable, shaped by social and cultural forces. This creates a dialectic between nature and society, where each influences the other.

Social Limits on the Organism. Society sets limits on the organism, determining longevity, health, and even basic functions like sexuality and nutrition. The institutional order imposes patterns of behavior and thought that can either enhance or constrain biological possibilities.

Resistance and Transformation. The organism resists social moulding, creating an internal dialectic between the biological substratum and socially produced identity. This tension is managed through various mechanisms, including legitimation and social control, which aim to integrate the individual within the social order.

10. The Sociology of Knowledge Informs Sociological Theory

The analyses of objectivation, institutionalization and legitimation are directly applicable to the problems of the sociology of language, the theory of social action and institutions, and the sociology of religion.

Interdisciplinary Relevance. The sociology of knowledge provides a crucial perspective for various areas of sociology, including the sociologies of language and religion, the theory of social action, and the study of institutions. It highlights the importance of understanding how knowledge shapes social phenomena and vice versa.

Dialectical Perspective. A dialectical perspective is essential for sociological theory, recognizing the ongoing interplay between social reality and individual existence. This approach avoids the reifications of both sociologism and psychologism, emphasizing the human enterprise of constructing reality in history.

Humanistic Sociology. The sociology of knowledge implies a humanistic conception of sociology, recognizing its place among the sciences that deal with man as man. It emphasizes the importance of understanding society as a human world, made by men, inhabited by men, and, in turn, making men in an ongoing historical process.

Last updated: March 12, 2025