The Poisoner's Handbook

1. The Dawn of Forensic Toxicology: A Deadly Game of Cat and Mouse

So began a deadly cat and mouse game—scientists and poisoners as intellectual adversaries.

Early Detection Challenges. Before the 19th century, detecting poison in a corpse was nearly impossible. This lack of forensic tools allowed poisoners to operate with impunity, leading to the widespread use of poisons like arsenic, known as "inheritance powder" due to its use in eliminating inconvenient relatives.

The Chemical Revolution. The 1800s brought a chemical revolution, with scientists isolating elements and compounds. This knowledge, while not initially intended for crime-solving, led to the development of tests for metallic poisons like arsenic. Mathieu Orfila's treatise on poisons in 1814 marked a turning point, but the isolation of new, undetectable plant-based poisons like morphine and strychnine created a new challenge.

A Deadly Game. The ability to detect metallic poisons led to a shift towards plant-based poisons, initiating a deadly game between scientists and poisoners. This intellectual battle spurred the development of forensic toxicology, with chemists like Jean Servais Stas figuring out how to isolate plant poisons from corpses, marking a significant step in the fight against poisoners.

2. Chloroform: The Lullaby That Kills

“When you give an old person chloroform, it’s like putting a child to sleep.”

Miracle Anesthetic to Murder Weapon. Chloroform, initially hailed as a miracle anesthetic by James Young Simpson, quickly became a double-edged sword. While it provided relief during surgery and childbirth, its unpredictable lethality and ease of use made it a favored tool for criminals, especially burglars.

Unpredictable Lethality. The effects of chloroform were capricious, with some patients dying unexpectedly on the operating table, while others survived massive doses. This unpredictability, coupled with the lack of understanding of its mechanism of action, made it a dangerous substance, especially for children, the elderly, and alcoholics.

The Mors Case. The case of Frederic Mors, a self-proclaimed serial killer, highlighted the deadly potential of chloroform. Mors, an orderly at a home for the elderly, used chloroform to kill seven residents, finding it a "wonderful poison" that was "perfectly, reliably lethal." His case exposed the limitations of forensic science at the time, as there was no way to detect chloroform in a corpse, allowing him to escape justice.

3. Wood Alcohol: Prohibition's Poisonous Legacy

“The Prohibition by our government of the manufacture of distilled liquors will unquestionably lead to much ‘moonshining,’ adulteration and dilution of liquors offered to the public.”

The Rise of Wood Alcohol. With the advent of Prohibition, wood alcohol (methyl alcohol) became a cheap and deadly substitute for grain alcohol. Bootleggers, seeking to evade taxes and regulations, used it to "denature" grain alcohol, turning it into a lethal industrial product.

Deadly Metabolism. Wood alcohol's toxicity stems from its breakdown into formaldehyde and formic acid, which are far more poisonous than the alcohol itself. This slow metabolic process means that the drinker can stew in an increasingly lethal cocktail for days, leading to blindness, organ damage, and death.

Gettler's Warning. Alexander Gettler, New York City's first toxicologist, recognized the impending danger of wood alcohol poisoning with the onset of Prohibition. He warned physicians, coroners, and health officers to be on their guard, anticipating a surge in wood alcohol deaths as people sought alternative sources of alcohol.

4. Cyanide: The Silent, Swift Killer

“The symptoms of acute poisoning proceed with almost lightning-like rapidity. Within two to five minutes after ingestion of the poison, the individual collapses, frequently with a loud scream (death scream).”

A Long, Dark History. Cyanides, found in nature and produced through industrial processes, have a long history as a potent poison. From the ancient Egyptians to the modern era, cyanides have been used for executions, suicides, and murders, due to their rapid and lethal effects.

Mechanism of Death. Cyanides kill by shutting down the body's ability to carry and absorb oxygen. They attach to hemoglobin in the blood, preventing oxygen from reaching cells, leading to rapid cell death, convulsions, and a desperate gasping for air.

The Hotel Margaret Case. The deaths of Fremont and Annie Jackson at the Hotel Margaret highlighted the challenges of detecting cyanide poisoning. Initially suspected to be a double suicide, the case was complicated by the lack of evidence in the stomachs. Only after exhuming Fremont Jackson and testing his lungs did Gettler find the telltale signs of cyanide, revealing that the couple had been killed by fumes seeping up from the basement.

5. Arsenic: The Undetectable Inheritance Powder

“In the United States, we are under the impression that arsenic still holds the first place in frequency of criminal administration.”

A Favorite of Poisoners. Arsenic, particularly white arsenic, was a favorite of poisoners due to its tastelessness and availability. It was used in everything from pesticides to cosmetics, making it easy to acquire and difficult to detect in food and drink.

The Shelbourne Restaurant Poisoning. The mass poisoning at the Shelbourne Restaurant, where six people died after eating arsenic-laced pie, highlighted the ease with which arsenic could be used to kill. The case also exposed the limitations of the coroner system, as the coroner's office was unable to determine the source of the poison.

The Molineux Case. The case of Roland Molineux, who used cyanide to kill two people, demonstrated the challenges of prosecuting poisoners. Despite strong circumstantial evidence, Molineux was acquitted in his second trial, highlighting the difficulties of proving guilt in poison cases.

6. Mercury: The Corrosive Sublimate

“It is of considerable practical significance that hydrocyanic acid is a poison for all members of the animal kingdom.”

A Slippery Substance. Mercury, a liquid metal, is known for its unique properties and its toxicity. While elemental mercury is less acutely dangerous, its salts, particularly mercury bichloride (corrosive sublimate), are highly poisonous, causing severe tissue damage and organ failure.

The Olive Thomas Tragedy. The accidental death of actress Olive Thomas, who mistook a bottle of mercury bichloride for her sleeping medicine, highlighted the dangers of this compound. Her death, though accidental, brought public attention to the risks associated with mercury salts.

The Hotel Margaret Case. The death of Gertie Webb, initially suspected to be a mercury poisoning, revealed the challenges of forensic analysis. While mercury was found in her body, Gettler determined that it was from a less toxic compound, calomel, and that her death was due to natural causes.

7. Carbon Monoxide: The Invisible Threat

“The symptoms of acute poisoning proceed with almost lightning-like rapidity. Within two to five minutes after ingestion of the poison, the individual collapses, frequently with a loud scream (death scream).”

A Silent Killer. Carbon monoxide (CO), a byproduct of incomplete combustion, is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that kills by preventing the blood from carrying oxygen. It is found in car exhaust, illuminating gas, and other sources, making it a common cause of accidental and intentional poisonings.

Mechanism of Action. Carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin in the blood, forming carboxyhemoglobin, which prevents oxygen from reaching cells. This leads to a rapid suffocation, with symptoms including drowsiness, headaches, dizziness, and ultimately, death.

The Freindlich Case. The case of Harry Freindlich, who tried to kill his wife with illuminating gas, highlighted the importance of forensic analysis. While the police initially suspected a gas leak, Gettler's analysis revealed that the woman had been suffocated, not poisoned by carbon monoxide, leading to the discovery of the murder.

8. Radium: The Luminous Killer

“We have found what apparently is an increased number of cases of methyl alcohol, as shown by chemical examination of the viscera. This would indicate that the alcohol sold all over the city contains methyl alcohol in dangerous amounts.”

A Miraculous Discovery. Radium, discovered by the Curies, was initially hailed as a miracle cure, with its ability to shrink tumors and provide a source of energy. This led to its widespread use in consumer products, from tonics to cosmetics.

The Radium Girls. The tragic story of the Radium Girls, dial painters who suffered from severe bone damage and other illnesses due to their exposure to radium, revealed the deadly nature of this element. Their case highlighted the dangers of industrial exposure and the need for better safety regulations.

The Byers Case. The death of millionaire Eben Byers, who had consumed large quantities of Radithor, a radium-based tonic, further exposed the dangers of radium. His case, along with the Radium Girls, led to increased public awareness and government regulation of radioactive substances.

9. Ethyl Alcohol: The Familiar Foe

“From almost every standpoint ethyl alcohol must be regarded as the most important poison with which medical men and jurists have to deal.”

The Most Important Poison. Ethyl alcohol, the active ingredient in alcoholic beverages, is a familiar and widely consumed substance. However, it is also a potent poison, responsible for countless deaths and diseases.

Metabolic Breakdown. Unlike methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol breaks down into less toxic compounds, such as acetic acid. However, excessive consumption can lead to severe organ damage, especially to the liver and brain.

Gettler's Research. Alexander Gettler's research into ethyl alcohol focused on its effects on the brain. He developed a scale of intoxication based on the amount of alcohol in the brain, providing a scientific basis for understanding the effects of alcohol on behavior.

10. Thallium: The Hair-Loss Horror

“It is of considerable practical significance that hydrocyanic acid is a poison for all members of the animal kingdom.”

A Deadly Metal. Thallium, a metallic element, is a highly toxic substance used in pesticides and, unfortunately, in some cosmetics. It is known for causing hair loss, paralysis, and severe organ damage.

The Gross Family Tragedy. The deaths of the Gross family, who were poisoned by thallium-laced cocoa, highlighted the dangers of this element. The case also demonstrated the challenges of detecting thallium poisoning, as its symptoms can mimic other diseases.

Gettler's Analysis. Alexander Gettler's analysis of the Gross family's tissues revealed the presence of thallium, leading to the dismissal of charges against the father. His work also highlighted the need for better regulation of thallium-based products.

Last updated: March 11, 2025