The Persian Expedition

1. Cyrus's Ambition and the Gathering Storm

Still, after the danger and disgrace from which he had escaped, Cyrus took measures to ensure that he should never again be in his brother’s power; instead, if he could manage it, he would become king in his brother’s place.

Driven by ambition. Cyrus, fueled by a desire for power and a mother's favoritism, meticulously amassed an army under the guise of quelling local conflicts. His true aim: to usurp the throne from his brother, Artaxerxes. This ambition set in motion a chain of events that would lead thousands of Greek mercenaries deep into the heart of the Persian Empire.

Deception as a tool. Cyrus skillfully masked his intentions, leveraging his position as satrap and commander to recruit troops and gather resources. He exploited existing tensions with Tissaphernes and cleverly manipulated the King's perception of his activities, ensuring that his true motives remained hidden until the opportune moment.

A diverse force. Cyrus's army was a melting pot of Greek mercenaries, drawn from various city-states and regions, each with their own motivations and allegiances. This diversity, while a strength in numbers, would later prove to be a source of internal conflict and challenges to leadership.

2. The Army's Distrust and Clearchus's Leadership

They already suspected that they were marching against the King and said that this was not the job for which they had been engaged.

Rising discontent. As the army marched deeper into Persian territory, suspicions grew among the Greek soldiers regarding Cyrus's true intentions. They had signed on for a campaign against rebellious tribes, not a full-scale war against the Great King. This discontent threatened to unravel the entire expedition.

Clearchus's sway. Clearchus, a Spartan exile and a seasoned military leader, emerged as a key figure in managing the growing unrest. His stern discipline and unwavering loyalty to his soldiers, though sometimes harsh, commanded respect and kept the army from dissolving into chaos.

A leader's dilemma. Clearchus faced a difficult choice: maintain his loyalty to Cyrus or side with his disgruntled troops. He ultimately chose the latter, recognizing that his power and influence depended on the support of his men. This decision, while pragmatic, further complicated Cyrus's plans and highlighted the precarious nature of his command.

3. Crossing the Euphrates: A Turning Point

It seemed certainly that there was something supernatural about it, and that the river had undoubtedly made way for Cyrus since he was destined to become King.

Point of no return. The crossing of the Euphrates River marked a significant turning point in the expedition. It was a symbolic commitment to Cyrus's cause, a step from which there would be no easy return. The soldiers, now fully aware of their destination, were faced with a stark choice: follow Cyrus to Babylon or face the wrath of the King.

Supernatural signs. The unusually low water level of the Euphrates was interpreted by some as a divine sign, a confirmation of Cyrus's destiny to become king. This belief, whether genuine or manufactured, helped to bolster morale and encourage the soldiers to press onward.

Menon's ambition. Menon, a Thessalian general, seized the opportunity to curry favor with Cyrus by leading his troops across the river first. This act of ambition and self-interest foreshadowed the divisions and rivalries that would plague the Greeks in the aftermath of Cunaxa.

4. The Battle of Cunaxa: Cyrus's Fatal Gamble

I see the man,’ charged down on him, and struck him a blow on the breast which wounded him through the breastplate... But while he was in the very act of striking the blow, someone hit him hard under the eye with a javelin.

A clash of titans. The Battle of Cunaxa was a pivotal moment, a clash between Cyrus's ambition and the might of the Persian Empire. Despite being outnumbered, the Greek mercenaries proved their superior skill and discipline, routing the enemy forces in front of them.

Cyrus's recklessness. Driven by a thirst for glory, Cyrus made a fatal decision to personally engage the King in battle. This act of bravery, while inspiring, left his army without a leader and ultimately sealed his doom.

A lost cause. Cyrus's death marked the end of his rebellion and left the Greek mercenaries stranded in hostile territory, thousands of miles from home. Their situation was dire, their leadership decimated, and their future uncertain.

5. Aftermath of Cunaxa: Isolation and Despair

There was certainly considerable confusion at this point, for the Greeks and everyone else thought that he would be upon them before they could form up in position.

Disarray and uncertainty. The immediate aftermath of Cunaxa was marked by chaos and despair. The Greeks, having won their part of the battle, were now isolated and surrounded by a victorious enemy. The loss of Cyrus, their patron and leader, left them without direction or purpose.

The King's demands. The King, emboldened by his victory, sent messengers demanding the Greeks surrender their arms and submit to his authority. This demand was met with defiance, but it underscored the precariousness of their situation.

A choice between fates. The Greeks faced a grim choice: surrender and face an uncertain fate at the hands of the King, or attempt to fight their way back to Greece, a journey fraught with peril and hardship. Their decision would determine their survival and their legacy.

6. Xenophon's Awakening and Call to Action

What am I lying here for? The night is passing and at dawn the enemy will probably be here.

A leader emerges. Amidst the despair and uncertainty, Xenophon, an Athenian soldier and writer, experienced a transformative awakening. He realized that inaction would lead to certain doom and that decisive leadership was needed to rally the demoralized troops.

A dream of hope. Xenophon's dream of a thunderbolt striking his father's house, while initially frightening, ultimately inspired him to take action. He interpreted the dream as a sign from Zeus, urging him to embrace the challenges ahead and lead his men to safety.

A call to arms. Xenophon's impassioned speech to the captains ignited a spark of hope and determination. He reminded them of their strength, their courage, and their duty to protect their fellow soldiers. His words resonated with the men, who were eager for a leader to guide them through the darkness.

7. The Oath of Allegiance and the Road Ahead

We will promise to give you a safe conduct through our country and bring you back to Greece without treachery, and provide you with opportunities for buying food.

A new alliance. The Greeks, now under new leadership, forged an alliance with Ariaeus, a Persian commander who had remained loyal to Cyrus. This alliance provided them with a semblance of security and a guide for their journey home.

A treacherous truce. The Greeks entered into negotiations with Tissaphernes, who offered them safe passage back to Greece in exchange for their oath of non-aggression. This truce, however, proved to be a trap, as Tissaphernes used it as an opportunity to seize the Greek generals.

A path forward. Despite the treachery and the loss of their leaders, the Greeks resolved to continue their march home. They elected new generals, including Xenophon, and prepared to face the challenges that lay ahead.

8. Tissaphernes's Treachery and the Loss of Generals

At one and the same signal, those who were inside were seized and those who were outside were massacred.

A fatal meeting. The Greek generals, trusting in the truce, attended a meeting with Tissaphernes, only to be betrayed and arrested. This act of treachery left the army without its senior leadership, plunging them into further chaos and uncertainty.

A massacre. The captains and soldiers who accompanied the generals to the meeting were also ambushed and killed, further decimating the Greek ranks. The loss of so many experienced officers dealt a severe blow to the army's morale and its ability to function effectively.

A turning point for Xenophon. The treachery of Tissaphernes and the loss of the generals created a vacuum of leadership that Xenophon was compelled to fill. He stepped forward to rally the troops, organize their defense, and guide them on their perilous journey home.

9. The Character of the Fallen Leaders

He had an outstanding ability for planning means by which an army could get supplies, and seeing that they appeared.

Clearchus: The Disciplinarian. A Spartan soldier known for his strict discipline and devotion to war, Clearchus valued order and obedience above all else. While effective in battle, his harshness often alienated his troops.

Proxenus: The Idealist. A Theban general who sought to achieve greatness through honorable means, Proxenus was a kind and considerate leader. However, his lack of assertiveness made him vulnerable to manipulation.

Menon: The Ambitious. A Thessalian general driven by a thirst for wealth and power, Menon was willing to resort to deceit and treachery to achieve his goals. His lack of loyalty and moral compass ultimately led to his downfall.

Agias and Socrates: The Loyal. These two generals, both Arcadians, were known for their courage and their unwavering loyalty to their friends. Their deaths were a testament to their commitment to honor and duty.

10. Xenophon's Ascendancy and the Army's Transformation

I am certain that the King would offer the Mysians all the guides they wanted, and would give them numbers of hostages to guarantee his good faith in sending them out of the country and would actually build roads for them, even though they wanted to go away in four-horse chariots.

A new leader. With the senior generals gone, Xenophon, through his courage, intelligence, and oratory skill, rose to become the de facto leader of the Ten Thousand. He inspired confidence in the troops and instilled in them a renewed sense of purpose.

From mercenaries to a nation. Under Xenophon's leadership, the Greek army transformed from a collection of mercenaries into a cohesive and disciplined fighting force. They developed a strong sense of camaraderie and a shared commitment to survival.

A model of leadership. Xenophon's leadership style was characterized by a combination of pragmatism, adaptability, and a deep understanding of human nature. He was able to motivate his men, make sound strategic decisions, and maintain order in the face of adversity.

11. The Brutal March Through Kurdistan

The larger the army, the greater the problem of supplying it and the slower its movements.

A test of endurance. The march through Kurdistan was a grueling ordeal, a test of the Greeks' physical and mental endurance. They faced constant attacks from hostile tribes, treacherous terrain, and dwindling supplies.

Adaptability and innovation. To survive in this harsh environment, the Greeks had to adapt their tactics and develop new strategies for fighting and foraging. They learned to rely on their own resourcefulness and ingenuity.

The importance of logistics. The challenges of supplying the army highlighted the importance of logistics in warfare. Xenophon and his generals had to find creative ways to secure food, water, and other essential resources for their men.

12. The Promise of the Sea and the Journey's End

When the men in front reached the summit and caught sight of the sea there was great shouting.

A beacon of hope. The sight of the sea, after months of hardship and uncertainty, was a moment of profound joy and relief for the Greeks. It symbolized the end of their long and arduous journey and the promise of returning home.

A Greek city. The arrival at Trapezus, a Greek colony on the Black Sea, provided the Ten Thousand with a much-needed respite and a chance to rest and resupply. It also marked the beginning of their reintegration into the Greek world.

A lasting legacy. The story of the Ten Thousand, as told by Xenophon, became a testament to the resilience, courage, and resourcefulness of the Greek soldier. It inspired generations of military leaders and adventurers and cemented Xenophon's place as one of history's great military writers.

Last updated: March 4, 2025