The Man Who Shocked The World

1. The Power of Obedience Can Override Moral Principles

This is, perhaps, the most fundamental lesson of our study: ordinary people, simply doing their jobs, and without any particular hostility on their part, can become agents in a terrible destructive process.

Ordinary people can be destructive. Milgram's experiments demonstrated that a significant proportion of individuals will follow orders from an authority figure, even if those orders involve inflicting harm on another person. This highlights the potential for ordinary people to participate in destructive processes, not out of malice, but out of a sense of duty. The study revealed that 65% of participants continued to administer electric shocks to a "learner" simply because they were instructed to do so by an authority figure.

Moral sense can be trampled. The experiments showed that in concrete situations containing powerful social pressures, our moral sense can readily get trampled underfoot. This challenges the assumption that individuals will always act according to their conscience, especially when confronted with conflicting demands from authority. The subjects were torn between their moral obligation not to harm another person and the experimenter's insistence that they continue the experiment.

Implications for understanding atrocities. Milgram explicitly embedded his research in the context of the Holocaust, seeking to understand how seemingly normal people could participate in such horrific acts. The experiments suggest that the atrocities were not necessarily the result of inherently evil individuals, but rather the product of situational forces that can induce obedience in ordinary people. This understanding reshapes our conceptions of individual morality and the potential for destructive obedience.

2. Situational Factors Greatly Influence Behavior

A unifying theme of Milgram’s research—and of this book—is that the intangibles of situations, the unverbalized social rules and norms operating within them, have a more powerful effect on our behavior than we might expect.

Situationism is key. Milgram was a strong believer in the power of the immediate situation in affecting a person's behavior. He demonstrated that seemingly minor changes in the experimental setup, such as the proximity of the "learner" or the presence of dissenting peers, could significantly alter the rate of obedience. This underscores the importance of considering situational factors when analyzing human behavior.

Beyond visible forces. What made Milgram stand out was his ability to go beyond the visible situational forces and demonstrate the unexpected power of certain invisible features of situations. He showed that the intangibles of situations, the unverbalized social rules and norms operating within them, have a more powerful effect on our behavior than we might expect.

Examples of situational influence:

• Proximity of the victim: Obedience decreased when the "learner" was in the same room as the subject.
• Authority of the experimenter: Obedience decreased when the experiment was conducted in a less prestigious setting.
• Presence of dissenting peers: Obedience decreased dramatically when other "teachers" refused to continue.

3. Milgram's Experiments Sparked Ethical Debates

Because of Stanley Milgram’s nerve, we know things about ourselves that we never wanted to admit.

Ethical concerns. Milgram's obedience experiments were highly controversial due to the stress and deception involved. Subjects were led to believe they were inflicting painful shocks on another person, and many experienced significant emotional distress. This raised serious questions about the ethical boundaries of psychological research.

Long-term impact. The ethical controversy surrounding the obedience experiments has had a lasting impact on the field of psychology. It led to the development of stricter ethical guidelines for research with human subjects, including the requirement for informed consent and the establishment of institutional review boards (IRBs). These safeguards are now in place to protect the well-being of research participants.

Milgram's defense. Milgram defended his research by arguing that the knowledge gained about human behavior outweighed the potential harm to subjects. He also pointed out that steps were taken after the experiment to ensure subjects' well-being, including debriefing sessions and follow-up questionnaires. However, the ethical debate continues to this day, highlighting the complex challenges of balancing scientific inquiry with the protection of human rights.

4. The Lost-Letter Technique Reveals Community Attitudes

A unifying theme of Milgram’s research—and of this book—is that the intangibles of situations, the unverbalized social rules and norms operating within them, have a more powerful effect on our behavior than we might expect.

Unobtrusive measure. Milgram developed the lost-letter technique as a way to measure community attitudes in an unobtrusive manner. By "losing" letters addressed to different organizations and observing the rate at which they were mailed, he could gauge public sentiment without directly questioning individuals. This technique circumvented the problem of social desirability bias, where people may provide answers they believe are more socially acceptable.

Application to social issues. Milgram used the lost-letter technique to study attitudes toward various social issues, such as political parties and racial integration. By observing the differential return rates of letters addressed to different groups, he could gain insights into the prevailing attitudes within a community. For example, he found that letters addressed to civil rights organizations were more likely to be mailed in black neighborhoods than in white neighborhoods.

Limitations and adaptations. While the lost-letter technique is a valuable tool, it has some limitations. It may not be suitable for studying subtle or complex attitudes, and it requires a large number of letters to be distributed in order to obtain statistically significant results. However, the technique has been adapted for use in online environments, such as the lost e-mail technique, demonstrating its enduring relevance.

5. The Small-World Phenomenon Highlights Interconnectedness

Milgram’s relentless curiosity made him willing to live on the edge scientifically and to take risks, especially with his groundbreaking and controversial research on obedience.

Six degrees of separation. Milgram's small-world research demonstrated that any two people in the world can be connected through a surprisingly short chain of acquaintances, typically around six intermediaries. This finding challenges our intuition about the vastness and complexity of social networks, suggesting that we are all more interconnected than we might realize.

The small-world method. Milgram devised an experiment, the small-world method, to test the small-world idea. The task of the starters was to send a folder to the target person using only a series of friends and acquaintances who were more likely to know the target person than they (the starters) were. The folder could only be sent to a person whom the sender knew on a first-name basis.

Beyond social networks. The small-world phenomenon has been found to be present in a wide range of networks, including the Internet, power grids, and neural pathways. This suggests that the underlying principles of interconnectedness may be universal, transcending specific domains. The small-world phenomenon has also captured the public imagination, inspiring plays, movies, and other cultural works.

6. Urban Life Creates Unique Psychological Adaptations

A unifying theme of Milgram’s research—and of this book—is that the intangibles of situations, the unverbalized social rules and norms operating within them, have a more powerful effect on our behavior than we might expect.

Stimulus overload. Milgram argued that urban life is characterized by stimulus overload, where individuals are bombarded with more information and stimulation than they can process. This leads to various psychological adaptations, such as reduced helpfulness, emotional detachment, and the creation of mental maps to navigate the complex urban environment.

Behavioral consequences. To cope with stimulus overload, city dwellers may develop a "cognitive filter" that screens out irrelevant information and reduces their responsiveness to the needs of others. This can lead to a decline in helping behavior and a sense of anonymity in the urban environment. Milgram found that city dwellers were less helpful than small-town residents when providing help was an inconvenience.

Mental maps of cities. Milgram studied how city residents create mental maps to navigate their urban environment. He found that certain landmarks and areas are more recognizable and salient than others, and that these mental maps can reflect individuals' lifestyles and emotional connections to the city. For example, Manhattan was found to be the most recognizable of the boroughs.

7. Milgram's Work Extends Beyond Psychology

Milgram’s relentless curiosity made him willing to live on the edge scientifically and to take risks, especially with his groundbreaking and controversial research on obedience.

Interdisciplinary impact. Milgram's research has had a significant impact on a wide range of disciplines beyond psychology, including law, business ethics, medicine, and the arts. His findings have been used to inform discussions about ethical decision-making, organizational behavior, and the nature of human evil. This interdisciplinary reach highlights the broad relevance and enduring significance of his work.

Influence on legal scholarship. The obedience experiments have been cited in numerous U.S. Supreme Court briefs and law review articles. They have been used to analyze issues such as criminal responsibility, the limits of authority, and the protection of individual rights. This demonstrates the practical application of Milgram's research to legal theory and practice.

Impact on the performing arts. Milgram's work has also inspired a variety of artistic creations, including plays, movies, and musical compositions. These works have helped to disseminate his ideas to a wider audience and to explore the emotional and moral dimensions of obedience and authority. This highlights the power of art to engage with complex social and psychological issues.

8. Personal Connections Shaped Milgram's Career

Allport was to become the most important person in Milgram’s academic life and a constant source of encouragement.

Influence of mentors. Milgram's career was significantly shaped by his relationships with key mentors, including Gordon Allport and Solomon Asch. Allport provided guidance and support throughout his graduate studies, while Asch introduced him to the experimental study of social influence. These mentors played a crucial role in shaping Milgram's intellectual development and research interests.

Friendships and collaborations. Milgram also formed close friendships and collaborations with other researchers, such as Roger Brown, Jerome Bruner, and Paul Hollander. These relationships provided intellectual stimulation, emotional support, and opportunities for collaboration. They also helped to shape his research agenda and to expand the reach of his work.

Family support. Milgram's family, particularly his wife Sasha, provided unwavering support throughout his career. Sasha played a crucial role in his research, providing feedback on his ideas, helping with data collection, and offering emotional support during challenging times. Their relationship was a source of strength and inspiration for Milgram.

9. Milgram's Legacy Endures Through Diverse Applications

Because of Stanley Milgram’s nerve, we know things about ourselves that we never wanted to admit.

Enduring relevance. Milgram's research continues to be relevant and influential today, as evidenced by its frequent citation in scholarly works, popular media, and artistic creations. His findings have had a lasting impact on our understanding of human behavior and the social forces that shape it. This enduring legacy is a testament to the power and originality of his work.

Application to contemporary events. Milgram's work has been used to analyze a wide range of contemporary events, from the Abu Ghraib prison scandal to the strip-search hoaxes. These applications demonstrate the ongoing relevance of his findings for understanding human behavior in real-world settings. His work has also been used to understand the behavior of the Nazi perpetrators.

Influence on ethical guidelines. The ethical controversy surrounding the obedience experiments led to the development of stricter ethical guidelines for research with human subjects. These guidelines are now in place to protect the well-being of research participants and to ensure that research is conducted in a responsible and ethical manner. This highlights the lasting impact of Milgram's work on the ethical standards of the field.

Last updated: February 26, 2025