The Common Sense of Science

1. Science is a Human Endeavor, Not an Impersonal Construction

Science is not an impersonal construction. It is no less, and no more, personal than any other form of communicated thought.

Science is personal. Bronowski argues against the notion of science as a cold, detached, and impersonal pursuit. He emphasizes that science, like art or literature, is a product of human minds, shaped by individual styles, biases, and perspectives. The "style" of a great scientist, like Newton, influences generations.

Style and content are intertwined. The way a scientist approaches a problem, the questions they ask, and the methods they employ are all reflections of their unique personality. This personal element is not a flaw but a strength, as it brings creativity and innovation to the scientific process. For example:

• Newton's Principia and Opticks reflect his unique style.
• The schoolboy who can tell a neat proof from a dull one knows the style, and takes pleasure in it.

Science is a search for common experience. Science seeks to understand the world through shared observations and experiments. It is a collaborative effort, built upon the contributions of countless individuals, each bringing their unique perspective to the table.

2. The Scientific Revolution Was a Universal Revolution

The Scientific Revolution in the seventeenth century was a universal revolution.

Beyond science. The Scientific Revolution was not confined to laboratories and observatories; it permeated all aspects of European culture. It was a period of profound change in attitudes towards nature, religion, politics, and the arts. Puritanism, Protestant martyrdom, Marvell, Molière, Cromwell's revolution, and the wars of Louis XIV are all traces of that change.

Interconnectedness of culture. The Royal Society and the Académie Royale des Sciences were visible symbols of this broader shift. Artists, writers, and scientists shared interests and passions. For example:

• Christopher Wren was an architect and professor of astronomy.
• John Evelyn was a diarist and founder of the Royal Society.
• John Dryden was a poet and member of the Royal Society.

A new outlook. The Scientific Revolution marked a transition from a world of ideal natures to a world of events running in a steady mechanism of before and after. This change in outlook was essential for the progress of science and the development of modern society.

3. Newton's Genius: Marrying Logic with Empirical Observation

In order to act in a scientific manner, in order to act in a human manner at all, two things are necessary: fact and thought.

The union of methods. Newton's genius lay in his ability to combine rational thought with empirical observation. He built upon the work of Kepler and Galileo, using their observations to formulate universal laws of motion and gravitation.

Building a new world. Newton created a hypothetical world based on a few simple axioms and then demonstrated that this world closely resembled the real world. This approach, similar to Euclid's geometry, allowed him to make accurate predictions about the behavior of celestial bodies. For example:

• Newton's laws of motion and gravitation explained Kepler's laws of planetary motion.
• Newton's calculations predicted the tides and the paths of comets.

The power of prediction. The success of Newton's model was not that it followed from the real world, but that it predicted a world that was essentially like ours. This predictive power gave scientists confidence in the underlying laws and assumptions.

4. The Peril of Premature Systematization in Science

A science which orders its thought too early is stifled.

The importance of observation. Bronowski cautions against imposing rigid systems on sciences before they have accumulated sufficient empirical data. The eighteenth century saw a decline in scientific progress due to the premature application of mathematical models to fields like biology and medicine.

The role of eccentrics. Important progress was made by self-made inventors and eccentric observers who were not constrained by the prevailing theoretical prejudices. For example:

• James Brindley designed the English waterways system without formal training.
• Gilbert White of Selborne made detailed observations of the natural world.
• Thomas Jefferson collected everything from flints to Indian languages.

The case of medicine. Medicine was hampered by the theory of humors, which tried to impose a system on events that had not been sufficiently observed. Advances came from scrupulous observations of symptoms and the definition of distinct diseases.

5. From Inner Order to Causal Mechanisms: A Shifting Worldview

The Scientific Revolution was a change from a world of things ordered according to their ideal natures, to a world of events running in a steady mechanism of before and after.

Aristotle vs. Newton. The medieval worldview, influenced by Aristotle, saw nature as striving towards its own inner order. The Scientific Revolution replaced this with a mechanistic view, where events are linked by cause and effect.

The rise of the machine. The world became a machine, and the concept of cause and effect became central to scientific understanding. This shift was exemplified by Newton's laws of motion and gravitation, which explained the movements of celestial bodies in terms of forces acting between them.

Limitations of causality. Bronowski argues that the emphasis on causality has been overrated. While it played a crucial role in clarifying the new science, it is not the fundamental notion. The change from a world of will to a world of machine and from hierarchies to a modelled world are more important.

6. The Limits of Causality: Embracing Uncertainty in Science

Science is a way of describing reality; it is therefore limited by the limits of observation; and it asserts nothing which is outside observation.

The downfall of gravitation. Even the seemingly unshakeable law of gravitation has been overturned by Einstein's theory of relativity. This demonstrates that even the most successful causal mechanisms can be approximations of a deeper reality.

The principle of uncertainty. Quantum physics has revealed that there are inherent limits to our ability to predict the behavior of small particles. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle states that we cannot simultaneously know both the position and momentum of a particle with perfect accuracy.

A new purpose for science. The purpose of science is not to discover universal causal laws but to describe the world in an orderly way that helps us to make predictions and guide our actions. This requires embracing uncertainty and recognizing the limits of observation.

7. Chance as Order: Re-creating Reality in Science

The order is what we find to work, conveniently and instructively. It is not something we stipulate; it is not something we can dogmatize about. It is what we find; it is what we find useful.

Beyond causal laws. Bronowski argues that science is not limited to the search for causal laws. Statistical laws, which describe the probability of certain events occurring, are equally valid and useful.

The power of prediction. The goal of science is to create a system of prediction, a "predictor," that can help us to anticipate the future. This system does not need to be based on strict causal mechanisms; it can incorporate elements of chance and uncertainty.

Embracing the unknown. Modern science embraces the idea that the future is not predetermined but rather exists within a defined area of uncertainty. This requires a shift in mindset from seeking absolute certainty to accepting probabilistic trends.

8. Science as a Language: Describing and Predicting

Science is an orderly language for describing some events and predicting others like them.

A tool for description. Bronowski uses the analogy of language to describe science. Science is a tool for describing the world, not necessarily explaining it through cause and effect.

The goal of prediction. The primary goal of science is to predict future events. This prediction is not about finding the "truth" but about creating a system that allows us to act effectively in the world.

Beyond explanation. The focus on prediction allows science to move beyond the limitations of causality. It allows for the creation of models that are useful even if they do not perfectly reflect the underlying mechanisms of nature.

9. Science and Values: Truth as a Cornerstone

If there is one system which can claim a more fanatical regard for truth than Lao-tze and the Pilgrim Fathers, it is certainly science.

Truth as a value. Bronowski argues that science is not amoral but rather is deeply committed to the value of truth. This commitment extends beyond mere truthfulness to fact and encompasses a broader sense of coherence and understanding.

Beyond verification. The pursuit of truth in science is not simply about verifying facts but about discovering the underlying laws and patterns that govern the universe. This requires judgment, creativity, and a willingness to challenge existing assumptions.

Science and ethics. Science shares the values of all human action, including goodness, beauty, and right conduct. It also adds to these values by promoting freedom of thought and inquiry.

10. Science: Destroyer or Creator of Human Values?

The human values are bound up with what we judge to be like and unlike; and when science shifts that judgement, it makes as profound a shift in these values.

Science and societal change. Bronowski addresses the common fear that science is a destructive force, undermining traditional values and creating a sense of doom. He argues that science is not responsible for the misuse of technology or the outbreak of war.

Expanding human understanding. Science has played a crucial role in expanding our understanding of the world and promoting human progress. It has helped to end practices like witch hunting and has contributed to a greater appreciation for human dignity.

The unity of nature. The ultimate goal of science is to discover the unity of nature, living and dead. This pursuit of unity is not only a scientific endeavor but also a moral one, as it promotes a sense of interconnectedness and responsibility.

Last updated: March 11, 2025