The Anatomy of Fascism

1. Fascism: A 20th-Century Invention, Not a Timeless Evil

Fascism was the major political innovation of the twentieth century, and the source of much of its pain.

Modernity's Child. Unlike conservatism, liberalism, or socialism, which matured in the 18th and 19th centuries, fascism was a distinctly 20th-century phenomenon. It emerged from a unique set of circumstances, not as a timeless evil but as a specific response to the challenges of its time. It was not a simple return to the past, but a new and unexpected combination of dictatorship and popular enthusiasm.

Unexpected Combination. Fascism defied expectations by combining dictatorship with popular support, a combination that was unimaginable to thinkers like Friedrich Engels in the late 19th century. This unexpected blend of authoritarianism and mass appeal made fascism a potent and dangerous force.

Beyond Simple Labels. Fascism cannot be easily categorized on the traditional left-right political spectrum. It was neither simply a more muscular form of conservatism nor a radical form of socialism. It transcended these outdated divisions, claiming to be "neither Right nor Left," and uniting the nation.

2. The Great War: Fascism's Immediate Catalyst

The experience of World War I was the most decisive immediate precondition for fascism.

Disillusionment and Dislocation. The unprecedented brutality and length of World War I shattered the optimistic and progressive views of the future that had prevailed before 1914. It left behind a generation of restless veterans, disillusioned with the old order and eager for radical change.

New Political Space. The war created a political vacuum by discrediting liberalism and socialism, the two dominant political forces of the pre-war era. The war also produced economic and social strains that exceeded the capacity of existing institutions to resolve, creating an opening for new political movements.

Mobilizing Passions. The war intensified existing nationalist sentiments and created a climate of fear and resentment. It also fostered a culture of violence and a belief in the power of will, which were central to the appeal of fascism.

3. Intellectual and Emotional Roots: Seeds of Fascism

Fascism rested not upon the truth of its doctrine but upon the leader’s mystical union with the historic destiny of his people.

Rejection of Reason. Fascism rejected the Enlightenment values of reason, individual liberty, and natural human harmony. It drew instead on the ideas of thinkers like Nietzsche, Sorel, and Le Bon, who emphasized the power of will, instinct, and the irrational.

Anxieties and Fears. Fascism exploited widespread anxieties about national decline, social disintegration, and the loss of community. It offered a sense of belonging, purpose, and order in a world that seemed increasingly chaotic and uncertain.

Mobilizing Passions. Fascism was fueled by a set of "mobilizing passions," including a sense of crisis, the primacy of the group, the belief in victimhood, the need for authority, and the beauty of violence. These passions, rather than a coherent ideology, were the driving force behind fascist movements.

4. From Movement to Power: The Fascist Cycle

This book takes the position that what fascists did tells us at least as much as what they said.

Five Stages of Fascism. Fascism follows a cycle of five stages: (1) the creation of movements; (2) their rooting in the political system; (3) their seizure of power; (4) the exercise of power; and (5) the long duration, during which the regime chooses either radicalization or entropy. Not all fascist movements complete all stages.

Adaptation and Transformation. As fascist movements sought power, they had to adapt and transform themselves, often abandoning some of their early principles and making alliances with traditional elites. This process of adaptation was crucial for their success.

Actions over Words. Fascism is best understood by examining what fascists did, not just what they said. Their actions often contradicted their rhetoric, revealing their true priorities and goals.

5. The Dual State: Fascism's Uneasy Power Sharing

The nature of Fascist rule: “Dual State” and Dynamic Shapelessness.

Normative vs. Prerogative. Fascist regimes were characterized by a "dual state," in which a "normative" state of traditional institutions and legal procedures coexisted with a "prerogative" state of party organizations and arbitrary power. This created a system of constant tension and conflict.

Tug-of-War. Fascist regimes were not monolithic. They were characterized by a constant tug-of-war between the leader, the party, the state, and civil society. Each of these groups had its own interests and agendas, leading to a dynamic and often chaotic system of rule.

Complicity and Accommodation. Fascist regimes could not have functioned without the complicity and accommodation of ordinary people and traditional elites. Many people chose to accept the apparent lesser evil or to avert their eyes from the excesses of the regime.

6. Radicalization or Entropy: Fascism's Long-Term Trajectory

At its fullest development, fascism redrew the frontiers between private and public, sharply diminishing what had once been untouchably private.

The Urge for Momentum. Fascist regimes could not settle into a comfortable enjoyment of power. They needed to maintain a sense of momentum and dynamism, which often led to increasingly radical policies and actions.

Two Paths. Fascist regimes faced a choice between radicalization and entropy. Some, like Franco's Spain and Salazar's Portugal, chose to normalize themselves into more traditional authoritarian regimes. Others, like Nazi Germany, embarked on a path of ever-increasing radicalization.

War as a Catalyst. War was a powerful catalyst for radicalization, providing an opportunity for fascist regimes to unleash their most extreme impulses and to pursue their goals of internal cleansing and external expansion.

7. Fascism's Enduring Legacy: Is It Still Possible?

Is Fascism Still Possible?

Fading Taboos. The taboos against fascism that were established after World War II have faded with the passage of time. New generations have less direct experience of the horrors of fascism, making them more susceptible to its appeal.

New Forms of Fascism. A new fascism would not necessarily resemble the classical fascism of the 1920s and 1930s. It would likely adopt new symbols and rhetoric, and it would be shaped by the specific conditions of its time.

Warning Signs. The warning signs of a potential fascist revival include a breakdown of democratic institutions, a climate of fear and resentment, the scapegoating of minorities, and the rise of charismatic leaders who promise simple solutions to complex problems.

8. Defining Fascism: A Synthesis of Action and Ideas

Fascism is “true” insofar as it helps fulfill the destiny of a chosen race or people or blood, locked with other peoples in a Darwinian struggle, and not in the light of some abstract and universal reason.

Obsessive Preoccupation. Fascism is marked by an obsessive preoccupation with community decline, humiliation, or victimhood. This sense of crisis justifies extreme measures and creates a climate of fear and resentment.

Compensatory Cults. Fascism promotes compensatory cults of unity, energy, and purity. It seeks to create a sense of belonging and purpose through mass mobilization, ritual, and the glorification of violence.

Uneasy Collaboration. Fascism involves a mass-based party of committed nationalist militants working in uneasy but effective collaboration with traditional elites. This alliance is crucial for the fascist seizure and exercise of power.

Redemptive Violence. Fascism abandons democratic liberties and pursues with redemptive violence and without ethical or legal restraints goals of internal cleansing and external expansion. It sees violence as a necessary and even beautiful means to achieve its goals.

Last updated: January 24, 2025