Sweller's Cognitive Load Theory in Action

1. Working Memory is Limited; Learning Requires Chunking

Because the environment is effectively limitless in scope, and our long-term memory is effectively limitless in its capacity, working memory – the only limited component of our memory system – acts as a bottleneck.

Cognitive Bottleneck. Our working memory, the site of conscious thought, can only handle a few pieces of information at once (around 4-7). This limitation is a major constraint on learning. The environment and long-term memory are effectively limitless, but working memory is the bottleneck.

Chunking for Complexity. To overcome this limitation, we "chunk" smaller pieces of information into larger, more meaningful units in long-term memory. This process allows us to think more complex thoughts without overloading working memory. For example:

• Letters combine into words
• Words combine into sentences
• Sentences combine into paragraphs
• Simple math facts combine into complex equations

Automate for Efficiency. Through practice, these chunks become automated, requiring less working memory capacity. This frees up cognitive resources for new learning. New information takes up more working memory capacity than familiar information.

2. Biologically Primary vs. Secondary Knowledge: What to Teach

Biologically secondary knowledge is knowledge we need because our culture has determined that it is important.

Evolved vs. Cultural Knowledge. Biologically primary knowledge, like language and social skills, is acquired naturally and unconsciously. Biologically secondary knowledge, like academic subjects, requires conscious effort and instruction.

Focus on Secondary. Schools primarily teach biologically secondary knowledge, as it's not naturally acquired. Examples include:

• Mathematics
• Science
• History
• Literature

Controversial Claim. The book argues that biologically primary skills are difficult to teach directly, which is a controversial claim. However, the core principles of Cognitive Load Theory remain valid regardless of this distinction.

3. Intrinsic vs. Extraneous Load: Focus on What Matters

In order to increase learning, reduce extraneous load and optimise intrinsic load.

Two Types of Load. Intrinsic cognitive load is the inherent difficulty of the material itself. Extraneous cognitive load is caused by how the material is presented. The goal is to minimize extraneous load and optimize intrinsic load.

Intrinsic Load is Necessary. Intrinsic load is unavoidable if the core concept is to be learned. For example, learning to read requires connecting letters to sounds. This is the cognitive load we want students to engage with.

Extraneous Load is Wasteful. Extraneous load is unnecessary and hinders learning. For example, using distracting images or complex formatting. Reducing extraneous load frees up working memory for intrinsic load.

4. Domain-Specific Knowledge is Key to Expertise

In any biologically secondary area, we can expect the major, possibly sole difference between novices and experts to consist of differential knowledge held in long-term memory.

No Generic Skills. Domain-general skills like problem-solving are not directly teachable. Expertise is domain-specific, meaning it's tied to a particular field.

Experts Have More Knowledge. The primary difference between novices and experts is the amount of relevant domain-specific knowledge stored in long-term memory. Experts have a large collection of situation → action pairs.

Knowledge is Power. To improve problem-solving or critical thinking in a specific area, you must increase your knowledge in that area. Novices use thinking skills, experts use knowledge.

5. Element Interactivity: The Source of Cognitive Load

Element interactivity is the source of all intrinsic and extraneous load.

Interacting Elements. The difficulty of learning material depends on the number of interacting elements that must be processed simultaneously in working memory. More elements and more interactions = higher cognitive load.

Low vs. High Interactivity. Material with low element interactivity can be learned in isolation. Material with high element interactivity requires simultaneous processing. For example:

• Learning a single word is low interactivity
• Finding coordinates on a map is high interactivity

Learner Dependent. Element interactivity depends on both the task and the learner's prior knowledge. Experts experience lower element interactivity than novices.

6. Optimize Intrinsic Load: Pre-teach, Segment, Sequence

Intrinsic load is optimised by good curriculum sequencing.

Adjusting Load. Intrinsic load may need to be increased, decreased, or maintained depending on the situation. The goal is to fully utilize working memory without overloading it.

Pre-teaching Reduces Load. Pre-teaching vocabulary, characters, events, or skills reduces the cognitive load of the main lesson. This allows students to focus on new information. For example:

• Pre-teach key vocabulary before reading a text
• Pre-teach characters before reading a novel
• Pre-teach skills before applying them to new content

Segmentation Breaks Down Complexity. Breaking tasks into smaller, manageable chunks reduces intrinsic load. This can be done by:

• Constructing a skills hierarchy
• Cutting elements from a task
• Sequencing tasks using forward or backward chaining

7. Reduce Extraneous Load: Redundancy, Split-Attention, Transient Info

Extraneous load is minimised by good instructional design.

Minimize Distractions. Extraneous load is anything that distracts from the core learning material. It should be minimized to free up working memory.

Redundancy is Wasteful. Avoid presenting the same information in multiple formats simultaneously (e.g., text and spoken word). Redundant information competes for working memory resources.

Split-Attention Hinders Integration. Place related information close together in space and time. Avoid splitting attention between different sources of information.

Transient Information is Fleeting. Avoid presenting information that disappears quickly. Provide written notes or handouts to reduce the cognitive load of remembering.

8. Modality Effect: Use Visual and Auditory Channels

The modality effect refers to simultaneously presenting related information via both visual and auditory channels, in order to take advantage of this ‘dual channel’ nature of working memory.

Dual Channels. Working memory has separate visual and auditory channels. Using both channels simultaneously can increase learning.

Eliminate Visual Split-Attention. Presenting some information visually and some auditorily can eliminate visual split-attention. For example, show a diagram while explaining it verbally.

Transience Trap. Be careful not to overload the auditory channel with too much information. Provide written notes or handouts for later reference.

Redundancy Trap. Avoid presenting the same information in both written and spoken form simultaneously. The modality effect is not about redundancy, but about using both channels for different types of information.

9. Worked Examples: Structure and Persist

The worked examples are a substitute for the lists of problems that students conventionally are asked to solve after the lesson. They are not a substitute for that lesson presented by the teacher.

Guided Practice. Worked examples are not just models for teaching, but a form of guided practice that students do after the initial lesson. They are a substitute for lists of problems.

Structure for Clarity. Worked examples must be structured to minimize extraneous load. This means taking into account redundancy, transience, split-attention, and modality.

Persist for Mastery. Continue using worked examples until students have a complete understanding of the material. Don't switch to problem-solving too early.

Alternation and Fading. Use example-problem pairs to alternate between worked examples and similar problems. Use fading to gradually remove steps from worked examples.

10. Self-Explanation: Connect Examples to Principles

Students are self-explaining when they explain an example to themselves in terms of its underlying principles, or when they explain to themselves why a particular principle can be applied to a specific example.

Explain to Learn. Students must actively explain worked examples to themselves, connecting them to underlying principles. This helps them see past surface features to the deep structure.

Example-Specific Prompts. Use prompts that encourage students to explain specific steps in a worked example. These can be multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blank, or free-response.

General Prompts. Train students to self-explain spontaneously using general prompts that target process, connection, anticipation, or principles. For example:

• What exactly are you doing?
• How does this new piece of information help?
• How are … and … similar?
• What will happen next?

Self-Explanation is Not Self-Teaching. Self-explanation is not a substitute for explicit instruction. It is a way to connect new examples to previously learned principles.

11. Goal-Free Effect: Focus on Learning, Not Just Answers

CLT shows this is not true.

Goals Can Hinder Learning. Focusing too much on obtaining a specific goal can reduce learning. Students may focus on means-ends analysis rather than understanding the underlying principles.

Remove the Goal. Removing the goal allows students to focus on the process of learning. This can lead to deeper understanding and better transfer.

Restricted Actions, Rapid Feedback, Reliable Results. The goal-free effect works best when students have restricted actions, rapid feedback, and reliable results. Digital learning environments are often ideal for this.

Shift Focus to Understanding. Encourage students to experiment, observe, and understand cause and effect. This approach can lead to better learning outcomes than focusing solely on getting the right answer.

Last updated: March 11, 2025