Practical English Usage

1. Grammar is a Descriptive, Not Prescriptive, System

The rules given in this book are descriptive: they explain what actually happens in standard spoken and written English.

Descriptive vs. Prescriptive. Traditional grammar often presents rules as fixed laws, dictating how language should be used. However, modern linguistics emphasizes a descriptive approach, focusing on how language is actually used by native speakers. This book aims to explain the patterns and conventions of standard English, acknowledging that language is constantly evolving.

Correctness is Relative. What is considered "correct" depends on the context and the variety of English being used. A sentence that is perfectly acceptable in informal conversation might be inappropriate in a formal essay. Similarly, a grammatical structure common in American English might be considered incorrect in British English.

Focus on Understanding. The goal is not to blindly follow arbitrary rules, but to develop a deep understanding of how English works. This understanding allows for more effective communication and greater flexibility in adapting to different contexts and audiences.

2. Mastering Verb Tenses for Clear Communication

There is not a direct relationship between verb forms and time.

Tenses and Time. English verb tenses are not simply markers of time (past, present, future). They also convey information about aspect (e.g., whether an action is ongoing or completed) and the speaker's perspective. Understanding the nuances of each tense is crucial for conveying precise meaning.

Beyond Simple Time. While the simple past tense is often used to describe past events, it can also express unreal or uncertain present or future events. Similarly, present tenses can be used to talk about the future.

Progressive and Perfect Forms. Progressive and perfect forms add further layers of meaning, indicating duration, completion, or relevance to the present. Mastering these forms allows for more nuanced and sophisticated communication.

3. Navigating Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Countable noun a noun like car, dog, idea, which can have a plural form, and can be used with the indefinite article a/an.

Countable vs. Uncountable. English nouns are divided into two categories: countable and uncountable. Countable nouns can be counted and have plural forms (e.g., "car," "dog," "idea"), while uncountable nouns cannot be counted and typically do not have plural forms (e.g., "water," "oxygen," "furniture").

Grammatical Implications. The distinction between countable and uncountable nouns affects article usage (a/an with singular countable nouns, no article with uncountable nouns) and verb agreement (singular verbs with uncountable nouns, plural verbs with plural countable nouns).

Context Matters. Some nouns can be both countable and uncountable, depending on the context. For example, "coffee" is usually uncountable (e.g., "I like coffee"), but it can be countable when referring to individual servings (e.g., "Two coffees, please").

4. Articles: Context and Specificity are Key

A, an and the are called 'articles'. A/an is called the 'indefinite article'; the is called the 'definite article'.

Definite vs. Indefinite. Articles (a/an and the) are used to specify whether a noun refers to a specific, identifiable entity (definite article "the") or a non-specific, general entity (indefinite article "a/an").

General vs. Specific. The choice between using an article and omitting it often depends on whether the speaker and listener share a common understanding of the noun being referenced. When talking about things in general, articles are often omitted.

Difficult Cases. Article usage can be tricky, with many special rules and exceptions. Mastering these nuances requires careful attention to context and a good understanding of English grammar.

5. Determiners: Guiding Noun Phrases

Determiner one of a group of words that begin noun phrases.

Beginning Noun Phrases. Determiners are words that come at the beginning of noun phrases, before any adjectives, and help to specify the noun's reference. They include articles (a/an, the), possessives (my, your), demonstratives (this, that), and quantifiers (some, all).

Types of Determiners. Different types of determiners convey different kinds of information. Articles indicate specificity, possessives indicate ownership, demonstratives indicate proximity, and quantifiers indicate quantity.

Combining Determiners. Certain rules govern how determiners can be combined. For example, possessives and demonstratives cannot be used together with articles. Understanding these rules is essential for constructing grammatically correct noun phrases.

6. Pronouns: Avoiding Repetition and Maintaining Clarity

Personal pronouns: the words I, me, you, he, him, etc.

Replacing Noun Phrases. Pronouns are words that replace noun phrases, avoiding unnecessary repetition and making sentences more concise. They include personal pronouns (I, me, he, him, she, her, it, we, us, they, them), possessive pronouns (mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs), and reflexive pronouns (myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves).

Subject and Object Forms. Personal pronouns have different forms depending on their grammatical function in a sentence. Subject pronouns (I, he, she, we, they) are used as the subjects of verbs, while object pronouns (me, him, her, us, them) are used as the objects of verbs or prepositions.

Maintaining Clarity. When using pronouns, it's important to ensure that their reference is clear and unambiguous. Avoid using pronouns in ways that could confuse the reader or listener about which noun phrase they are replacing.

7. Adjectives and Adverbs: Precision in Description

Adjective a word like green, hungry, impossible, which is used when we describe people, things, events, etc.

Describing Nouns and Verbs. Adjectives are used to describe nouns, while adverbs are used to describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Understanding this distinction is crucial for using these word classes correctly.

Linking Verbs. After linking verbs (e.g., be, seem, look, feel), adjectives are used to describe the subject of the sentence. Adverbs are not used in this context.

Confusing Cases. Some words can function as both adjectives and adverbs, leading to potential confusion. In these cases, it's important to consider the word's function in the sentence to determine whether it should be used as an adjective or an adverb.

8. Prepositions: Essential Connectors, Difficult to Master

Preposition a word like on, off, of, into, normally followed by a noun or pronoun.

Connecting Words. Prepositions are words that connect nouns or pronouns to other words in a sentence, indicating relationships of time, place, direction, or manner. They are essential for creating meaningful and grammatically correct sentences.

No Simple Rules. Mastering prepositions is challenging because there are few simple rules to follow. The correct preposition often depends on the specific word it follows, and there are many idiomatic expressions that must be learned individually.

Prepositional Verbs. Many English verbs are regularly followed by prepositions before objects. These are called prepositional verbs, and their meanings can be very different from the meanings of the two parts taken separately.

9. Conjunctions: Linking Ideas and Structuring Sentences

Conjunction a word like and, but, although, because, when, if, which can be used to join clauses together.

Joining Clauses. Conjunctions are words that connect clauses, phrases, or words, indicating relationships such as addition, contrast, cause, or time. They are essential for creating complex and meaningful sentences.

Coordinating vs. Subordinating. Coordinating conjunctions (e.g., and, but, or) join clauses of equal grammatical rank, while subordinating conjunctions (e.g., because, although, when, if) introduce subordinate clauses that depend on a main clause.

Punctuation. The use of commas with conjunctions depends on the length and complexity of the clauses being joined. In general, longer or more complex clauses are separated by commas, while shorter clauses may not require them.

10. Modal Verbs: Expressing Possibility, Obligation, and More

Modal auxiliary verb one of the verbs can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, would, should, ought.

Adding Meaning. Modal auxiliary verbs (e.g., can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, would, should, ought) are used with other verbs to add various kinds of meaning, such as possibility, probability, obligation, permission, or ability.

Grammatical Peculiarities. Modal verbs have unique grammatical properties. They do not have infinitives or participles, and they do not take the -s ending in the third-person singular. They also form questions and negatives without the auxiliary verb "do."

Hypothetical Situations. Modal verbs are often used to express hypothetical situations, that is to say, situations which may not happen, or are imaginary.

11. Varieties of English: Context Matters

Standard A standard form of a language is the one that is most generally accepted for use in government, the law, business, education and literature.

Standard vs. Non-Standard. The book emphasizes that there is no single "correct" form of English. Instead, different varieties of English (e.g., British, American, Australian) and different styles (e.g., formal, informal) are appropriate in different contexts.

British and American English. The explanations in the book deal mainly with standard everyday southern British English, but contrasts between British and American English are given detailed attention.

Correctness is Relative. The mistakes listed in the book are wrong if produced by someone aiming to write standard British or American English. They would not necessarily be incorrect in some other varieties of the language.

12. Continuous Learning and Adaptation are Essential

It depends on how much people need, or want, a high level of correctness when speaking or writing another language.

Language is Dynamic. English is a constantly evolving language, with new words, expressions, and grammatical structures emerging all the time. To maintain a high level of proficiency, it's essential to stay up-to-date with these changes.

Embrace Mistakes. Making mistakes is a natural part of the language-learning process. It's important not to become obsessed with correctness or to worry every time you make a mistake.

Effective Communication. The ultimate goal of language learning is effective communication. While accuracy is important, it's not always necessary to speak or write like a native speaker in order to convey your message clearly and successfully.

Last updated: March 13, 2025